Employer requirements

• The OSHA standard requires covered employers to keep employees safe from crane-related hazards by following and communicating proper procedures for design, installation, inspection, maintenance, and use.

In general, the standard requires covered employers to:

1. Ensure proper design specifications are followed during installation. Employers should make sure that overhead cranes constructed after August 31, 1971, meet the design specifications of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standard Safety Code for Overhead and Gantry Cranes, ANSI B30.2.0-1967. The most recent revision of this standard is the 2016 edition.
2. Verify that cranes that are modified are re-rated. Employers should make sure that the modifications and the supporting structure are checked thoroughly for the new rated load by a qualified engineer or the equipment manufacturer. The crane should be tested and the new rated load displayed on each side of the crane.
3. Allow only designated personal to operate a crane. There aren’t any specific requirements in the standard for employee training. However, there is the requirement that only “designated” employees can run the crane. Designated means selected or assigned by the employer or the employer’s representative as being qualified to perform specific duties.
4. Follow maintenance procedures. Employers should verify that proper maintenance procedures are being followed. This includes preventative maintenance and adjustments and repairs.
5. Perform frequent inspections. Employers should inspect cranes frequently and periodically to ensure the safety of employees and the facility. The intervals are dependent upon the nature of the critical components of the crane and the degree of their exposure to wear, deterioration, or malfunction. Frequent inspection is usually done on a daily to monthly interval. Some items that need to be inspected include:
   • Operating mechanisms for excessive wear or improper adjustment.
   • Air or hydraulic system lines, tanks, valves, pumps for leakage or deterioration.
   • Crane hooks for deformation or cracks. A visual inspection on these hooks is required daily, and a written monthly inspection must also be done and kept on file.
   • Hoist chains for wear, twisting, distortion. A visual inspection on these chains is required daily, and a written monthly inspection must also be done and kept on file.
   • Rope reeving for noncompliance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
6. Perform periodic inspections. Periodic inspections are done at 1- to 12-month intervals. This is more of a complete inspection and includes the frequent inspection requirements in addition to looking for the following:
   • Deformed, cracked, or corroded members.
   • Loose bolts or rivets.
   • Cracked or worn sheaves and drums.
   • Worn, cracked, or distorted parts such as pins, bearings, shafts, gears, rollers, and locking and clamping devices.
   • Excessive wear on brake system parts, linings, pawls, and ratchets.
   • Load, wind, and other indicators over their full range, for any significant inaccuracies.
   • Gasoline, diesel, electric, or other power plants for improper performance or noncompliance with applicable safety requirements.
   • Excessive wear of chain drive sprockets and excessive chain stretch.
   • Electrical apparatus, for signs of pitting or any deterioration of controller contactors, limit switches, or pushbutton stations.
7. Inspect the wire rope. In addition to the frequent and periodic inspection requirements listed above, all the wire rope on the crane must be inspected at least once a month with a certification record prepared showing the exact ropes inspected and the name of person doing the inspection. The record must be kept on file. Wire rope installed on a crane that has been idle must be inspected before the crane is used.
8. Handle the load. The crane should never be loaded beyond its rated load except for test purposes. Use only the load block hook to lift the load, not the hoist chain or rope. Use a sling to attach the load to the load block hook.
9. Move the load. The load must be balanced in the sling. Users must verify that the rope is not twisted or kinked.
   • The crane should not be used for side pulls unless a responsible person authorizes it.
   • Loads must not be carried over people.
   • The brakes should be tested each time a load approaching the rated load is handled (by raising the load a few inches and then applying the brakes).
   • During a multi-lift operation (two or more cranes are lifting a load), one qualified person must be in charge and analyze the operation and instruct personnel in proper positioning, rigging of the load, and movements to be made.
10. Test the hoist limit switch. The upper limit switch should be tested under no load at the beginning of each shift. If it’s not operating properly, the appointed person should be notified. “Appointed” means assigned specific responsibilities by the employer or the employer’s representative.

Crane hook safety issues

• Safety latches on sling hooks are required in only some situations.
• Employees are not allowed to tie off to the hook of an overhead crane.

Whether the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) requires a safety latch on a sling hook depends on the activity for which the sling is being used. While the standard for slings provides that “[s]lings shall be securely attached to their loads,” the section does not explicitly require that the hook be equipped with a safety latch.

Use of a hook with a safety latch would, of course, be one way of securely attaching a sling to its load. (Other standards, such as those for derricks, do include explicit requirements for latch-type hooks.)

In addition, OSHA often considers the provisions of industry consensus standards when evaluating whether a hazard is “recognized” and whether there is a feasible means of abating that hazard. One such provision that OSHA considers is ASME 30.2-2001, Overhead and Gantry Cranes, which does require “latch-equipped hooks” be used if practical and necessary for the lift.

Note: OSHA does not allow employees to tie off to the hook of an overhead crane. They address this issue in a still-valid letter dated April 4, 1993: “Work cannot be performed from a suspended load or hook ...”

Employer requirements

• The OSHA standard requires covered employers to keep employees safe from mobile-crane-related hazards via personnel choice, design specifications, and adherence to maximum load ratings.

In general, the standard requires covered employers to:

1. Permit only designated personnel to operate a crane. The Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) allows only designated personnel to operate a crane. OSHA defines designated as “selected or assigned by the employer or the employer’s representative as being qualified to perform specific duties.”
2. Ensure proper design specifications are followed. Mobile cranes constructed after August 31, 1971, must meet the design specifications of the American National Standard Safety Code for Crawler, Locomotive, and Truck Cranes, ANSI B30.5-1968, which OSHA incorporates by reference. The most recent revision of this standard is the 2018 edition.
3. Follow the maximum load ratings where stability governs lifting performance. The margin of stability for determination of load ratings (with booms of stipulated lengths at stipulated working radii for the various types of crane mountings) is determined by taking a percentage of the loads that will produce a condition of tipping or balance if the boom is in the least stable direction, relative to the mounting.
4. Provide a load rating chart to help determine stability. Employers must provide a substantial and durable rating chart with clearly legible letters and figures for each crane and securely affix it to the crane cab in a location that is easily visible to an operator who is seated at the control station.

Employer requirements

• Employers are responsible for providing a safe work environment for their employees, including determining safe ground conditions, assessing hazards in the work zone, inspecting equipment to keep it in good working order, and training employees in proper procedures.

Employers are responsible for minimizing hazards to the extent possible and providing employees with the knowledge and resources to work safely in and around mobile cranes.

Determine ground conditions

Employers must determine whether the ground is sufficient to support the anticipated weight of hoisting equipment and associated loads.

The term “ground conditions” means the ability of the ground to support the equipment (including slope, compaction, and firmness).

Assess hazards

Employers must assess hazards within the work zone that would affect the safe operation of hoisting equipment, such as those of power lines and objects or personnel that would be within the work zone or swing radius of the hoisting equipment.

Ensure equipment is safe

Employers must ensure that the equipment is in safe operating condition by performing required inspections.

Train employees

Employers must train employees in the work zone to recognize hazards associated with the use of the equipment and any related duties that they are assigned to perform.

Crane operator requirements

• Crane operators must be certified, but employers should also evaluate them to make sure they have the necessary skills.

The employer must ensure that each operator is trained, certified/licensed, and evaluated before operating any equipment covered under 29 CFR 1926 Subpart CC.

Operator qualification requirements

Being certified doesn’t necessarily make an operator qualified. The most important way to determine an operator’s qualifications is through evaluation during the certification process. The Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) has determined that an employer evaluation is necessary to determine the qualifications of an operator.

Just as a driver’s license doesn’t qualify an employee to operate all types of vehicles, certification doesn’t mean that an operator can use all types of cranes. Ultimately, there are two major issues associated with certified operators who switch to new equipment or tasks without evaluation:

1. A certified operator who switches tasks involving the same crane type with different controls could lack the skills to operate new controls.
2. An operator assigned to unfamiliar tasks might not have the expertise required to manage or avert accidents or risks inherent during crane operation.

Operator certification requirements

Before the evaluation process begins, operators must be trained and certified in operating either a specific crane type or a crane type with a specific rated capacity. Although employers are required to provide each operator-in-training with sufficient training, certification can be acquired through:

• Licensing from a state or local government,
• A certification by an accredited crane operator testing organization, or
• An audited employer program.

Third-party certification is portable. If an employee acquired certification from a previous employer, that certification is acceptable. However, employers are still required to evaluate an operator with certification, whether from a third party or not.

Until employees pass evaluation, they must be considered operators-in-training and must not use equipment without supervision.

Evaluation of operator qualification

The evaluation process should be performance-oriented. For operators to learn successfully and safely, a competency evaluation is critical. The requirements for the evaluation process have important advantages:

1. The process allows a newly hired operator to run the equipment while a new employer gauges the operator’s knowledge, operating skills, and training needs.
2. It also allows experienced and certified operators to become accustomed to performing new crane operations or operating different equipment while being evaluated by the employer for that purpose.

(Note: Employers are not required to comply with the evaluation process if operators are using derricks, side-booms, and cranes with a capacity of 2,000 pounds or less.)

Many incidents occur because an operator doesn’t have the equipment-specific knowledge to safely operate a crane. For this reason, OSHA has determined that accidents can be reduced if employers evaluate the operators’ skills and knowledge, as well as their ability to recognize and avert risk necessary to operate the equipment. Employees’ capabilities with the following should be evaluated:

• Safety devices and operational aids;
• Software and the size and configuration of the equipment; and
• Hoisting activities such as blind lifts, personnel hoisting, and multi-crane lifts.

The evaluation can be done by a qualified operator who has already passed evaluation or by an agent. If the employer decides to use an agent, the requirements for evaluation still apply and should be enforced.

An operator who successfully passes evaluation can operate equipment without supervision unless doing so would require different skills, knowledge, or ability to reduce risk. There may be many times when operators switch to new tasks or equipment. In those cases, a new evaluation should be performed to reduce the risk of injury to the operator or employees around the crane and equipment.

Ground conditions

• Adequate ground conditions for a crane involve the ground’s slope, compaction, and firmness; if any of these is lacking, the crane might tip over.
• The job’s CE is responsible for assessing ground conditions pre-project and arranging measures to improve ground conditions as needed.

The typical construction crane can weigh many tons. Putting this weight on the ground at a construction site can lead to all sorts of problems. The most serious could be crane tip-over caused by the ground underneath the crane giving way.

The Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) has determined that failure to have adequate ground conditions is a significant crane safety problem.

The term “ground conditions” is defined as the ability of the ground to support the equipment. Three key factors are involved in ground conditions:

• Slope
• Compaction
• Firmness

Adequate ground conditions are essential for safe operations because the crane’s capacity and stability depend on those conditions being present. There are two key problems regarding ground conditions:

1. Equipment is often brought on-site by a subcontractor who has little control over ground conditions and lacks any knowledge of hidden hazards.
2. The company that does have control over the ground conditions, and could be aware of hidden hazards, may not have the expertise to know what changes are needed to make the area suitable for safe crane operation.

Stability and support

The requirements for ensuring adequate ground support apply both when assembling a crane and during actual crane operation.

The three ground support requirements are:

1. Ensure the ground is firm, drained, and graded.
2. Supply enough supporting materials, if needed, to keep the crane stable. “Supporting materials” is defined as blocking, mats, cribbing, marsh buggies (in marshes/wetlands), or similar supporting materials or devices. Such materials typically help to distribute the load of the crane over a broad area and/or assist in leveling the equipment.
3. Verify that the crane’s “degree of level” is met. This is the crane manufacturer’s specifications for how level the crane must be.

The responsibility for determining if the ground conditions are safe falls to the job’s controlling entity (CE). The CE is defined as an employer who is a prime contractor, general contractor, construction manager, or any other legal entity that has the overall responsibility for the project’s planning, quality, and completion.

Before any equipment is brought to the jobsite, the CE must possess and examine information (such as site drawings, as-built drawings, and soil analyses) to see if there are hazards beneath the crane setup area. If there are hazards identified in those documents, or if the CE has identified other hazards, then the CE must inform the crane user and operator of the hazards.

If the CE is not familiar with the crane or with the ground conditions at a particular jobsite, then the CE is responsible for having someone who is familiar with those requirements:

• Ensure that ground preparations necessary to meet the requirements in 1–3 above are met; and
• Inform the user and the operator of the location of hazards beneath the equipment setup area (such as voids, tanks, and utilities) if:
  • Those hazards are identified in documents (such as site drawings, as-built drawings, and soil analyses) that are in the possession of the CE (whether at the site or off-site); or
  • The hazards are otherwise known to that CE.

If there is no CE for the project, the ground support requirements in 1–3 above must be met by the employer who has authority at the site to make or arrange for ground preparations.

Assembly and disassembly

Before beginning assembly/disassembly (A/D), the A/D director has to determine whether ground conditions are adequate to support the equipment during that activity. If the A/D director or the operator determines that ground conditions do not meet the ground support requirements, that person’s employer must have a discussion with the CE regarding the ground preparations that are needed so that, with the use of suitable supporting materials/devices (if necessary), the ground support requirements can be met.

Power-line safety

• For safety’s sake, all power lines should be considered to be energized and uninsulated until confirmed otherwise.
• Cranes must either maintain a minimum distance from power lines at all times, or other safety measures (such as having the lines de-energized) must be taken.

All power lines should be considered to be energized unless the utility owner/operator confirms the line has been, and continues to be, de-energized and visibly grounded at the jobsite. In addition, power lines should be presumed to be uninsulated unless the utility owner/operator or a registered professional engineer — who is a qualified person with respect to electrical power transmission and distribution — confirms that a line is insulated.

The Occupational Safety & Health Association’s (OSHA) 29 CFR 1926 Subpart CC requires employers to use a very specific and systematic approach to deal with the hazards of power lines.

(Note: Some of these requirements do not apply to work covered by Subpart V — Power Transmission and Distribution.)

When working near all voltages, the basic procedure is:

1. Identify the work zone, assess it for power lines, and determine how close the crane could get to them. The employer has the option of doing this assessment for the area 360 degrees around the crane or for a more limited, demarcated area.
2. If the assessment shows that the crane could get closer than the trigger distance corresponding to the voltage of the power line (20 feet for lines rated up to 350 kV, 50 feet for lines rated over 350 kV, or as determined by a qualified person for lines rated over 1000 kV), then requirements for additional actions are needed.
3. The additional actions for cranes and derricks operating within the trigger distance are:
   1. De-energize and ground the lines, or
   2. Implement encroachment/electrocution prevention measures to prevent the crane from breaching the minimum clearance distance.

The employer is allowed to choose from several minimum clearance distance options.

Equipment operations — Power-line safety (all voltages)

• To minimize power-line hazards, employers must clearly mark or define the work zone and determine whether any part of the crane, load line, or load could get closer than the trigger distance.
• No part of the equipment or load is allowed beneath a power line unless that line is de-energized and visibly grounded.

In addition to frequent and periodic inspections, employers are required to inspect and test equipment to ensure it is capable of safe and reliable operation when initially set up or placed in service and after any major repairs or design modification.

The first step is to determine if power lines pose a hazard. To do this requires the work zone to be identified in one of the following ways:

1. Marking boundaries with flags or with a range limit device or range control warning device. Next, the employer must prohibit the crane operator from operating the equipment past those boundaries.
2. Defining the work zone as the area 360 degrees around the equipment, up to the equipment’s maximum working radius.

Once the work zone is identified, it must be determined if any part of the crane, load line, or load (including the rigging and lifting accessories) could get closer than the trigger distance to a power line.

The trigger distance is as follows:

• For power lines up to 350 kV: 20 feet
• For power lines from 350–1000 kV: 50 feet
• For power lines over 1,000 kV: The minimum clearance distance must be established by the utility owner/operator or a registered professional engineer who is a qualified person with respect to electrical power transmission and distribution. The clearance distance will be at least 50 feet.

This determination should be made with the assumption that the crane will be operated up to its maximum working radius in the work zone.

If the crane will not get closer than the trigger distance to the power line, then the employer is not required to take any further action.

However, the employer may encounter a situation where it is necessary to increase the size of the work zone. This may occur as a result of an unanticipated need to change the crane’s position or have it operate beyond the original work zone boundaries. If that is the case, the employer must reidentify the work zone and conduct a new trigger distance assessment.

Operations below power lines

No part of the equipment, load line, or load (including rigging and lifting accessories) is allowed below a power line unless the employer has confirmed that the utility owner/operator has de-energized and (at the jobsite) visibly grounded the power line. Exceptions are listed in paragraph 1926.1408(d)(2).

Power-line safety (all voltages) — Equipment operations closer than the Table A zone

• Working closer than the Table A distance is allowed under three conditions: the work is impossible otherwise, the line can’t be de-energized, and an expert determines a minimum distance that’s specific to the site.

There are requirements in place to protect employees from contact with power lines. The requirements consist of prerequisites and criteria that apply when work must be done closer than the minimum clearance distance specified in Table A of 1926.1408.

Working closer than the minimum approach distance allowed in Table A is highly discouraged.

However, there is an exception if the following three requirements are met:

1. The employer determines it is not possible to do the work without breaching the minimum approach distance in Table A.
2. The employer determines after consultation with the utility owner/operator that it is not possible to de-energize and ground the power lines.
3. The power-line owner/operator or a registered professional engineer (who is a qualified person with respect to electrical power transmission and distribution) determines the minimum clearance distance that must be maintained to prevent electrical contact, specific to on-site conditions. Some factors that must be considered include:
   • Conditions affecting atmospheric conductivity;
   • Time necessary to bring the equipment, load line, and load (including rigging and lifting accessories) to a complete stop;
   • Wind conditions;
   • Degree of sway in the power line;
   • Lighting conditions; and
   • Other conditions affecting the ability to prevent electrical contact.

The next step is to have a planning meeting that includes the employer and utility owner/operator to determine the procedures that will be followed to prevent electrical contact and electrocution. At a minimum, there are 12 procedures that must be included, per 1926.1410(d)(1) through (d)(12), and these procedures must be documented and immediately available on-site.

Traveling under or near power lines with no load

Equipment traveling under or near power lines with no load is covered at 1926.1411. The minimum clearance distances in Table T must be maintained. For traveling in poor visibility, a dedicated spotter should be used if needed, along with additional precautions.

Danger of getting close to or touching equipment and load

• The possibility of getting close enough to the power line to act as a ground is called “touch potential.”

When cranes are operating near overhead power lines, the crane, load line, or load could come into contact with the lines. If that happens, the electric current will pass through the equipment to the ground.

Anyone touching the crane in this situation will act as a ground, and the electric current will pass through the person. Even if the person doesn’t touch the equipment, the ground near the crane will be energized and present an electrocution hazard.

The Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) refers to this hazard as “touch potential.” Touch potential is the voltage between the energized object and the feet of a person in contact with the object. It is equal to the difference in voltage between the object and a point some distance away.

Note that the touch potential could be nearly the full voltage across the grounded object if that object is grounded at a point remote from the place where the person is in contact with it. For example, a crane that was grounded to the system neutral and that contacted an energized line would expose any person in contact with the crane, or its uninsulated load line, to a touch potential nearly equal to the full voltage of the power line.

People should avoid approaching or coming into contact with any equipment that is operating, or any load being moved, near power lines.

Danger of an energized zone

• If a crane touches a power line, current will pass into the ground, putting anyone standing nearby at risk.

If a crane comes into contact with a power line, the current will pass through the equipment to the ground. This unintentional grounding, more commonly known as a ground fault, enables voltages to be impressed on the “grounded” object that is faulting the line. A person could be at risk of injury during a fault simply by standing near the grounding point.

The Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) refers to this hazard as “step potential.” Step potential is the voltage difference between the two feet of a person standing near an energized grounded object. It is equal to the difference in voltage, given by the voltage distribution curve, between two points at different distances from the electrode.

OSHA recommends that anyone who is not directly involved in the operation being performed should keep away from areas where hazardous step or touch potentials could arise. Anyone on the ground in the vicinity of transmission structures should stay at a distance where step voltages would be insufficient to cause injury.

Common grounding procedures

• Work being done near transmitter towers or power lines must have precautionary measures in place for dissipating voltage.
• Employees who are attaching grounds are at risk of shock and should have adequate protection.

A common method of grounding, which the Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) recommends in 1926 Subpart O — Motorized Vehicles, Mechanical Equipment, and Marine Operations for work near an electrical charge, includes:

• Providing the equipment with an electrical ground directly to the upper rotating structure supporting the boom; and
• Attaching ground jumper cables to materials being handled by boom equipment when electrical charge is induced while working near energized transmitters. Crews must be provided with nonconductive poles having large alligator clips or other similar protection to attach the ground cable to the load.

It’s important to understand that work being performed near transmitter towers or power lines (where an electrical charge can be induced in the equipment or materials being handled) must have precautionary measures implemented to dissipate induced voltages before work is performed. Being aware of the limitations of grounding is key.

Limitations of grounding

According to the preamble to Subpart CC (page 47958 of the Federal Register dated August 9, 2010), “OSHA is aware that employees are exposed to serious electric shock hazards when they are attaching grounds in accordance with 1926.1408(f). For example, when attaching the rigging to the load or the ground to the crane, the crane and load will be energized.

“OSHA views this condition as a recognized hazard and expects employers to ensure that employees are adequately protected when they are attaching grounds. Employers who fail to properly protect their employees in this regard will, in appropriate circumstances, be subject to citation under the General Duty Clause (sec. 5(a)(1)) of the OSH Act.”

Recommended evacuation procedures

Deciding whether to remain inside the cab or evacuate after power-line contact is important, especially where there is an imminent danger of fire, explosion, or other emergency. According to OSHA, to protect crane operators against electrical shock, the following procedures are recommended:

• The crane operator should remain inside the cab until the lines have been de-energized.
• All other personnel should keep away from the crane, ropes, and load since the ground around the machine might be energized.
• The crane operator should try to remove the crane from contact by reversing direction.
• If the crane cannot be moved away from contact, the operator should remain inside the cab until the lines have been de-energized.

Limitations of insulating links, proximity alarms, and range control (and similar) devices

• Insulating links, proximity alarms, and range control devices are all useful tools for minimizing electrical risks but have their limitations.

It’s important to understand that insulating links, proximity alarms, and range control (and similar) devices all have their limitations.

Insulating links

Insulating links serve a dual purpose. They protect a rigger who is handling the load if the equipment upstream of the link makes electrical contact with a power line. They also protect employees who are upstream of the insulating link if the load makes electrical contact with a power line.

The workers who are at the greatest risk of electrocution — the riggers who handle the load — are also protected by the requirement for nonconductive tag lines.

The insulating link option that is available under 1926.1408(b)(4)(v) would not protect against encroachment (certainly a limitation), but it would provide protection to employees handling the load in the event that encroachment did occur.

Insulating links must be installed between the end of the load line and the load. When so installed, these prevent the load from becoming energized in the event the load line or other part of the equipment makes electrical contact with a power line.

Preventing the load from becoming energized helps protect riggers, who often guide crane loads manually and who are at a high risk of being electrocuted if a load becomes energized. For more information on insulating links, including the phase-in period for these devices, see 1926.1408(b)(4).

Proximity alarms

A proximity alarm is a device that warns of the equipment coming near a power line. The device must be listed, labeled, or accepted by an Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory. The limitations of a proximity alarm include not being operational, or effective against electrocution, during certain phases of the assembly or disassembly process of certain types of cranes.

Range control devices

A range control warning device is a device that can be set by an equipment operator to warn that the boom or jib tip is at a certain plane or multiple planes. The device must be set to alert the operator in time to prevent the boom, load line, or load (whichever is closest to the power line) from breaching the trigger distance.

As a practical matter, the device has to be set to sound the warning before the trigger distance is reached, since the operator will need some time to react and to account for the momentum of the equipment, load line, and load.

Crane assembly/Disassembly hazards

• OSHA requires employers to comply with either manufacturer procedures or employer procedures for crane assembly and disassembly.
• Before beginning A/D, crew members must know their tasks, the associated hazards, and the hazardous locations to avoid on the jobsite.

Some mobile crane accidents happen because of improper assembly and disassembly of the crane on the jobsite. Most of these accidents could be avoided by following the crane manufacturer’s requirements for assembly/disassembly (A/D). That’s why the Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) requires the employer to comply with all manufacturer prohibitions applicable to assembly and disassembly, and use either:

• Manufacturer procedures for assembly and disassembly, or
• Employer procedures for assembly and disassembly.

Manufacturer procedures are generally the first choice. Employer procedures may be used only where the employer can demonstrate that the procedures used do the following:

• Prevent unintended dangerous movement and collapse of any part of the equipment,
• Provide adequate support and stability of all parts of the equipment, and
• Position employees involved in the A/D operation so that their exposure to unintended movement or collapse of part or all of the equipment is minimized.

Employer procedures must be developed by a qualified person.

Synthetic slings are an exception. Employer procedures can’t be used during rigging if the employer uses synthetic slings. Rather, the synthetic sling manufacturer’s instructions, limitations, specifications, and recommendations must be followed.

Proper assembly procedures

Accidents during A/D are often caused by:

• Misunderstanding or confusion by employees as to their tasks and how they are to be performed, or
• Failure to recognize potentially dangerous areas in and around the equipment.

The details of these tasks, and the location of danger areas that workers need to keep out of, often vary from one machine to another. The A/D director is responsible for making sure that the crew members know this essential information before starting the A/D process.

Crew instructions

Before beginning A/D operations, the A/D director must make sure that the crew members understand:

• Their tasks,
• The hazards associated with their tasks, and
• The hazardous positions and locations that they need to avoid.

Before a crew member takes on a different task, or when adding new personnel during the A/D operations, the crew instruction requirements listed above must be met. Crew instructions must be given first.

Capacity limits

Rated capacity limits must not be exceeded for loads imposed on the equipment, equipment components (including rigging), lifting lugs, and equipment accessories. This prohibition applies during all phases of A/D.

In some cases, the crane being assembled is used to install its own counterweights (which can create a capacity limit risk). Early in this process, when few counterweights are in place, the crane’s capacity will be so limited that swinging beyond a certain point, or booming out beyond a certain point, may cause it to overturn.

Note that where an assist crane is being used during the A/D of another crane/derrick, the requirements for rated capacity during operations must be met.

Other hazards

• To minimize risks, employers should in most cases follow manufacturer limitations and procedures for the equipment.
• Cantilevered boom sections, shipping pins, pile driving equipment, and rigging all have specific requirements for safe use.

To minimize risks on the jobsite, employers in the construction industry using mobile cranes in the construction industry must address the following issues.

Cantilevered boom sections

A common mistake in assembly/disassembly is cantilevering too much boom. When this is done, structural failure can occur in components such as the mast/gantry, boom sections, and lifting lugs.

Employees may be struck by falling components from this type of failure. To prevent accidents from cantilevering too much boom during assembly/disassembly, the manufacturer’s limitations on cantilevering must not be exceeded.

If the manufacturer’s limitations are not available, the employer is required to have a registered professional engineer (RPE) determine the appropriate limitations, and to abide by those limitations. The RPE’s determination must be in writing to ensure that the assessment has been done.

Weight of components

As with any load to be lifted by a crane/derrick, the weight of the components must be available to the operator so that the operator can determine if the lift can be performed within the crane/derrick’s capacity. This requirement applies irrespective of whether the component is being hoisted by the crane being assembled/disassembled or by an assist crane.

Manufacturer prohibitions

Manufacturers’ prohibitions always take precedence. A prohibition specified by the manufacturer is a clear sign that if it is not heeded, a significant hazard would likely be created.

An employer would be able to choose to use either manufacturer assembly/disassembly procedures or the workplace’s own, as long as the procedures meet the requirements. However, in either case, the manufacturer prohibitions regarding assembly or disassembly would need to be met.

Shipping pins

Reusable shipping pins, straps, links, and similar equipment must be removed. Once removed, they must be stowed or otherwise stored so that they do not present a falling object hazard.

Being properly stowed might include being placed in a special hole or bracket designed to keep the item from being dislodged. Storage on the equipment could include placing them in an equipment box in the cab.

Pile driving

Equipment used in pile driving operations must not have a jib attached. The constant pounding of the pile driving hammer and the sometimes-rapid descent of the pile causes the boom to bounce.

If a jib were installed on the tip, as the boom bounces the jib could be thrown backward against its stops, which would likely cause structural damage to the boom. The damage could cause the boom to immediately fail or could diminish its capacity.

Rigging work

When rigging is used for assembly/disassembly, the employer must make sure that:

• The rigging work is done by a qualified rigger.
• Synthetic slings are protected from abrasive, sharp, or acute edges and from configurations that could cause a reduction of the sling’s rated capacity, such as distortion or localized compression. Note: Requirements for the protection of wire rope slings are contained in 1926.251(c)(9).
• When synthetic slings are used, the synthetic sling manufacturer’s instructions, limitations, specifications, and recommendations are followed.

Work area control

• Employees should be aware of the danger of being struck or crushed by the crane’s superstructure when it’s rotating.
• The site’s CE should coordinate work so that cranes working near each other do not collide.

The work area is the accessible areas in which the equipment’s rotating superstructure (whether permanently or temporarily mounted) poses a reasonably foreseeable risk of:

• Striking and injuring an employee, or
• Pinching/crushing an employee against another part of the equipment or another object.

Hazards of rotating superstructures

The rotation of a crane’s superstructure can cause serious injury and death to employees working near the crane. Specifically, there are two hazards employees need to be aware of:

• Being struck by the rotating superstructure, and
• Being crushed against another part of the crane or against another object by the rotating superstructure.

The employer is required to erect and maintain control lines, warning lines, railings, or similar barriers to mark the boundaries of the hazard areas. One type of barrier that is often used is attached directly to the crane and moves with the equipment.

There is an exception, and that is when the employer can demonstrate that it is feasible to erect such barriers on neither the ground nor the equipment. In that case, the hazard areas must be clearly marked by a combination of warning signs (such as “Danger — Swing/Crush Zone”) and high-visibility markings on the equipment that identify the hazard areas. In addition, the employer must train each employee to understand what these markings signify.

Cranes working near each other

If there are several cranes working near each other, and if any part of a crane/derrick is within the working radius of another crane/derrick, the controlling entity (CE) must institute a system to coordinate operations. If there is no CE, the employer (if there is only one employer operating the multiple pieces of equipment) or employers must devise and institute such a system.

Signs, signals, and markings

• When equipment is left unattended, barricades or caution lines and must be used to keep employees from entering the fall zone.
• Equipment that’s out of service must be clearly tagged as such.

The requirements for signs, signals, and markings in the Occupational Safety & Health Association’s (OSHA) 29 CFR 1926 Subpart CC include the following.

Leaving the equipment unattended — Barricades/Caution lines and notices

When the equipment is left unattended, barricades or caution lines and notices must be erected to prevent all employees from entering the fall zone. No employees are permitted in the fall zone when the equipment is unattended, including those who are:

• Engaged in hooking, unhooking, or guiding a load;
• Engaged in the initial attachment of the load to a component or structure; or
• Operating a concrete hopper or concrete bucket.

Out of service — Tag-out

When the employer has taken the equipment out of service, a tag must be placed in the cab stating that the equipment is out of service and is not to be used. When the employer has taken a crane function(s) out of service, a tag must be placed in a conspicuous position stating that the function is out of service and is not to be used.

If there is a warning (tag-out or maintenance/do not operate) sign on:

• The equipment,
• The starting control, or
• Any other switch or control,

then the operator must not activate the switch or start the equipment until the sign has been removed by a person authorized to remove it, or until the operator has verified that:

• No one is servicing, working on, or otherwise in a dangerous position on the machine; and
• The equipment has been repaired and is working properly.

Fall protection

• Employees who might be exposed to fall hazards must be trained in fall protection requirements, including the use of installed fall protection such as guardrails and personal fall protection such as body belts.

A study of crane-related fatalities in the U.S. construction industry found that 2 percent of the fatalities resulted from falls. Falls from cranes, particularly when the operator is entering or leaving the crane, also cause numerous non-fatal injuries to construction workers.

Training

Employers must train each employee who may be exposed to fall hazards while on, or hoisted by, equipment covered by the Occupational Safety & Health Association’s (OSHA) 29 CFR 1926 Subpart CC. The training must consist of:

• The fall protection requirements listed below, and
• The applicable fall protection requirements in Subpart M — Fall Protection (1926.500 and 1926.502).

Types of fall protection

“Fall protection equipment” is defined as “guardrail systems, safety net systems, personal fall arrest systems, positioning device systems, or fall restraint systems.” (1926.760)

“Fall restraint system” is defined as “a fall protection system that prevents the user from falling any distance. The system is comprised of either a body belt or body harness, along with an anchorage, connectors and other necessary equipment. The other components typically include a lanyard and may also include a lifeline and other devices.” (1926.751)

The types of fall protection required for cranes are the same fall protection equipment required under other OSHA standards.

Personal fall arrest equipment and use

Personal fall arrest system components must be used in personal fall arrest and fall restraint systems and must conform to the criteria in 1926.502(d), except that 1926.502(d)(15) does not apply to components used in personal fall arrest and fall restraint systems. Either body belts or body harnesses must be used in personal fall arrest and fall restraint systems.

There is a required use exception, namely that operators do not need to be tied off when moving to and from their crane cabs.

Fall protection is also not required for employees on decks, since that equipment is typically designed so that employees are not exposed to a fall hazard.

Monorail hoists enforcement policies

• OSHA excludes monorail hoists from the Subpart CC requirements as long as other OSHA requirements are met.

The Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) has a new enforcement policy that excludes monorail hoists from the requirements of Subpart CC — Cranes and Derricks in Construction, as long as employers meet other OSHA requirements.

The following is from an OSHA Memorandum issued June 30, 2017.

“The scope of Cranes and Derricks in Construction (the cranes standard, 29 CFR Part 1926, subpart CC) includes a functional definition for the equipment covered. The standard applies to ‘power-operated equipment, when used in construction, that can hoist, lower, and horizontally move a suspended load.’ (29 CFR 1926.1400[a]). Monorail hoists are not explicitly excluded from the scope of the rule, and OSHA has issued several letters of interpretation confirming the crane standard’s coverage of specific monorail hoists in certain construction operations.

“As a number of stakeholders have pointed out, the standard is not a perfect fit for monorail hoists, and OSHA intends to consider rulemaking options to address this issue. The purpose of this memorandum is to announce a temporary enforcement policy pending the resolution of that rulemaking process.

“Most monorail hoist systems have a completely fixed monorail (I-beam). When used in construction, these hoisting systems are typically mounted on equipment such as work vehicles, trailers, and scaffolding systems. The monorails can be extended and contracted in only a fixed horizontal direction to hoist materials and can only hoist them as high as the monorail. Some examples of materials commonly lifted and placed by monorail hoists during construction are precast concrete components (septic tanks, storm drain and sewer conduits, vaults, etc.); storage tanks (propane, oil, etc.); mechanical components (engines, commercial generators, etc.); trade specific components (electrical transformers, industrial spooled materials, sewer lids, etc.); and temporary storage units.

“Monorail hoists present unique issues. Many monorail hoist manufacturers do not design their systems to meet any particular criteria recommended in consensus standards, though the designs of their hoisting mechanisms most resemble those of overhead hoists covered by ASME 830.172015 (Cranes and Monorails (With Underhung Trolley or Bridge)).

“Stakeholders have pointed out that a number of the provisions of the crane standard add very little protection when these monorail hoists are used. For example, the stakeholders have told OSHA that because these monorails are fixed such that they do not angle up or down, the equipment does not warrant the elevated level of protections from power-line contact required by the crane standard. They also note that monorails cannot boom out significantly beyond the wheelbase of a vehicle or the base of its supporting structure, and thus the hoisting equipment does not pose the dangerous cantilevering and stability hazards that are addressed by requirements of the crane standard.

“Furthermore, they assert that there is no need for specific protections from hazards posed by booming out loads, boom free fall, equipment swing radius, or any crane-related hazards that would necessitate the use of devices like level indicators, boom/jib stops, boom/jib limiting devices, boom length/radius indicators, and drum hoist rotation indicators.

“Finally, stakeholders have pointed out that the loads handled by monorail hoists are not heavy enough to trigger the need for a load weighing device or the use of load charts to prevent overloading and tipping the hosting equipment.

“However, it is clear that monorail and overhead hoist systems present recognized workplace hazards, including those addressed by 29 CFR 1926.554 (Overhead hoists), ASME B30. l 7, and various manufacturers’ recommendations. For the reasons discussed above, and until the application of the cranes standard to monorail hoists is revisited through rulemaking, OSHA intends to exercise its enforcement discretion by not citing employers for failing to achieve full compliance with the cranes standard when monorail hoists are used, if the following conditions are met to protect employees:

• Compliance with 29 CFR 1926.554 (Overhead hoists). OSHA notes that its Overhead Hoist standard requires the use of outriggers and other supports whenever prescribed by the manufacturer.
• Operators of this equipment are trained in accordance with 29 CFR 1926.21.
• The employer has determined that each operator is qualified to safely operate that hoisting system per 29 CFR 1926.20(b)(4).
• When monorail hoists are mounted on equipment such as work vehicles, utility trailers, scaffolding systems (including mast climbing), and various other mobile or stationary support systems, the employer must also comply with all other OSHA construction requirements that are applicable to each supporting vehicle, equipment, and structure.

“Should an employer operating such equipment fail to comply fully with all of the requirements described, the requirements of the crane standard would apply.”

Inspections

• All equipment and components should be inspected according to manufacturer recommendations before each work shift.
• Work zones should be inspected for hazards such as drop-offs, debris, and high winds before aerial lifts are operated.

Prior to each work shift, workers should conduct a pre-start inspection to verify that the equipment and all its components are in safe operating condition. The inspection should follow manufacturer recommendations and include a check of/for:

• Proper fluid levels (oil, hydraulic, fuel, and coolant);
• Leaks of fluids;
• Wheels and tires;
• Battery and charger;
• Lower-level controls;
• Horn, gauges, lights, and backup alarms;
• Steering and brakes;
• Operating and emergency controls;
• Personal protective devices;
• Hydraulic, air, pneumatic, fuel, and electrical systems;
• Fiberglass and other insulating components;
• Placards; warnings; and operational, instructional, and control markings;
• Mechanical fasteners and locking pins;
• Cable and wiring harnesses;
• Outriggers, stabilizers, and other structures;
• Loose or missing parts; and
• Guardrail systems.

If any component is defective, an aerial lift must not be operated until it is repaired by a qualified person. Defective aerial lifts must be removed from service (tagged out) until repairs are made.

Work zone inspection

Employers must ensure that work zones are inspected for hazards and take corrective actions to eliminate such hazards before and during operation of an aerial lift. Items to look for include:

• Drop-offs, holes, or unstable surfaces such as loose dirt;
• Inadequate ceiling heights;
• Slopes, ditches, or bumps;
• Debris and floor obstructions;
• Overhead electric power lines and communication cables;
• Other overhead obstructions;
• Other hazardous locations and atmospheres;
• High wind and other severe weather conditions, such as ice; and
• The presence of others in close proximity to the work.

Safety practices

• To operate an aerial lift safely while traveling, workers should stay within load, reach, and windspeed limits and avoid overriding any safety devices.
• Overhead protection practices include being aware of clearance and ceilings and treating power lines as energized unless confirmed otherwise.

Safety practices that must be observed when aerial lifts are used include fall protection, safe travel procedures, overhead protection, and maintaining stability of the aerial lift.

Fall protection

When using aerial lifts, workers should take the following precautions to prevent falls:

• Ensure that access gates or openings are closed.
• Stand firmly on the floor of the bucket or lift platform.
• Do not climb on or lean over guardrails or handrails.
• Do not use planks, ladders, or other devices as a working position.
• Use a personal fall arrest or travel restraint system that meets the requirements in 1910 Subpart I and is attached to the boom or basket.
• Do not belt off to adjacent structures or poles while in the bucket.

Operation when traveling

Workers should follow these rules for safe operation when traveling:

• Do not exceed the load-capacity limits. The combined weight of the worker(s), tools, and materials must be taken into account when calculating the load.
• Do not use the aerial lift as a crane.
• Do not carry objects larger than the platform.
• Do not drive with the lift platform raised (unless the manufacturer’s instructions allow this).
• Do not operate lower-level controls unless permission is obtained from the worker(s) in the lift (except in emergencies).
• Do not exceed vertical or horizontal reach limits.
• Do not operate an aerial lift in high winds above those recommended by the manufacturer.
• Do not override hydraulic, mechanical, or electrical safety devices.

Overhead protection

Employees can be injured when contracting with overhead objects. To prevent this, they should follow these rules:

• Be aware of overhead clearance and overhead objects, including ceilings.
• Do not position aerial lifts between overhead hazards if possible.
• Treat all overhead power lines and communication cables as energized and observe appropriate approach distances.
• Ensure that the power-utility or power-line workers de-energize power lines in the vicinity of the work.

Aerial lift stability

To ensure the stability of the aerial lift and keep workers safe, these rules should be followed:

• Set outriggers on pads or on a level, solid surface.
• Set brakes when outriggers are used.
• Use wheel chocks on sloped surfaces when it is safe to do so.
• Set up work zone warnings, such as cones and signs, when necessary to warn others.

Inspection

• All equipment and components should be inspected according to manufacturer recommendations before each work shift.
• Work zones should be inspected for hazards such as drop-offs, debris, and high winds before aerial lifts are operated.

Prior to each work shift, workers should conduct a pre-start inspection to verify that the equipment and all its components are in safe operating condition. The inspection should follow manufacturer recommendations and include a check of/for:

• Proper fluid levels (oil, hydraulic, fuel, and coolant);
• Leaks of fluids;
• Wheels and tires;
• Battery and charger;
• Lower-level controls;
• Horn, gauges, lights, and backup alarms;
• Steering and brakes;
• Operating and emergency controls;
• Personal protective devices;
• Hydraulic, air, pneumatic, fuel, and electrical systems;
• Fiberglass and other insulating components;
• Placards; warnings; and operational, instructional, and control markings;
• Mechanical fasteners and locking pins;
• Cable and wiring harnesses;
• Outriggers, stabilizers, and other structures;
• Loose or missing parts; and
• Guardrail systems.

If any component is defective, an aerial lift must not be operated until it is repaired by a qualified person. Defective aerial lifts must be removed from service (tagged out) until repairs are made.

Work zone inspection

Employers must ensure that work zones are inspected for hazards and take corrective actions to eliminate such hazards before and during operation of an aerial lift. Items to look for include:

• Drop-offs, holes, or unstable surfaces such as loose dirt;
• Inadequate ceiling heights;
• Slopes, ditches, or bumps;
• Debris and floor obstructions;
• Overhead electric power lines and communication cables;
• Other overhead obstructions;
• Other hazardous locations and atmospheres;
• High wind and other severe weather conditions, such as ice; and
• The presence of others in close proximity to the work.

Fall protection

When using aerial lifts, workers should take the following precautions to prevent falls:

• Ensure that access gates or openings are closed.
• Stand firmly on the floor of the bucket or lift platform.
• Do not climb on or lean over guardrails or handrails.
• Do not use planks, ladders, or other devices as a working position.
• Use a personal fall arrest or travel restraint system that meets the requirements in 1910 Subpart I and is attached to the boom or basket.
• Do not belt off to adjacent structures or poles while in the bucket.

Operating when traveling

Workers should follow these rules for safe operation when traveling:

• Do not exceed the load-capacity limits. The combined weight of the worker(s), tools, and materials must be taken into account when calculating the load.
• Do not use the aerial lift as a crane.
• Do not carry objects larger than the platform.
• Do not drive with the lift platform raised (unless the manufacturer’s instructions allow this).
• Do not operate lower-level controls unless permission is obtained from the worker(s) in the lift (except in emergencies).
• Do not exceed vertical or horizontal reach limits.
• Do not operate an aerial lift in high winds above those recommended by the manufacturer.
• Do not override hydraulic, mechanical, or electrical safety devices.

Overhead protection

Employees can be injured when contracting with overhead objects. To prevent this, they should follow these rules:

• Be aware of overhead clearance and overhead objects, including ceilings.
• Do not position aerial lifts between overhead hazards if possible.
• Treat all overhead power lines and communication cables as energized and observe appropriate approach distances.
• Ensure that the power-utility or power-line workers de-energize power lines in the vicinity of the work.

Aerial lift stability

To ensure the stability of the aerial lift and keep workers safe, these rules should be followed:

• Set outriggers on pads or on a level, solid surface.
• Set brakes when outriggers are used.
• Use wheel chocks on sloped surfaces when it is safe to do so.
• Set up work zone warnings, such as cones and signs, when necessary to warn others.

Hazards

• Accidents involving scissor lifts tend to be due to lacks in fall protection, stabilization, or positioning.
• Scissor lifts should be carefully placed and operated to avoid crushing and electrocution risks.

Over a one-year period, the Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) investigated 10 preventable fatalities and more than 20 preventable injuries resulting from a variety of incidents involving scissor lifts. OSHA’s investigations found that most injuries and fatalities involving scissor lifts were the result of employers not addressing:

• Fall protection
• Stabilization
• Positioning

Employers need to assess the jobsite to identify all possible hazards in order to select the appropriate equipment for the task. Employers who use scissor lifts must evaluate and implement effective controls that address fall protection, stabilization, and positioning.

Only trained workers should be allowed to use scissor lifts, and employers should make sure that those workers show that they can use a scissor lift properly.

Safe scissor lift use includes properly maintaining the equipment, following the manufacturer’s instructions, providing workers with training and needed personal protective equipment (PPE), and implementing safe work practices.

Positioning the scissor lift to avoid crushing or electrocution hazards is important for safe use. Crushing hazards are present in workplaces with scissor lifts and may expose workers nearby, even those not working on the scissor lift. Scissor lifts present similar crushing hazards to vehicles and other mobile equipment at jobsites.

Employers should train workers to be watchful when:

• A moving scissor lift is near a fixed object.
• A moving vehicle and the scissor lift are operating closely.
• The scissor lift passes under a fixed object, such as a doorframe or support beam.

Energized power lines

To safely use scissor lifts near energized power lines, the scissor lift must be positioned to avoid electrocution, arc flash, and thermal burns. Since electricity can arc or jump from the power line to the scissor lift or worker, electrocution can occur even if neither the scissor lift nor the worker touches the power line.

Employers should use the following work practices to ensure that scissor lifts are safely positioned:

• Implement traffic control measures around the scissor lift to prevent other workers or vehicles from getting too close.
• Use ground guides when operating or moving the scissor lift around the workplace.
• Select work locations that are at least 10 feet away from electrical power sources (e.g., power lines, transformers) and that do not pose other overhead hazards (e.g., other utilities, branches, overhangs).
• If the job task requires work near an electrical source, ensure that the worker is qualified and has received the required electrical training.

Fall protection

Scissor lifts must have guardrails installed to prevent workers from falling (see 29 CFR 1926.451[g]). Employers should train workers to:

• Check to see that a guardrail system is in place before working on the scissor lift.
• Only stand on the work platform, never on the guardrails.
• Keep work within easy reach to avoid leaning away from the scissor lift.

If all the manufacturer’s guardrails are in place, there is no requirement for having to wear a personal fall arrest harness and tie-off in the scissor lift.

Scissor lift stability

Employers should ensure that scissor lifts are stable and will not tip over or collapse. Some safe work practices to ensure safe, stable conditions for scissor lift use include:

• Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for safe movement (this usually rules out moving the lift in an elevated position).
• Isolate the scissor lift or implement traffic control measures to ensure that other equipment cannot contact the scissor lift.
• Select work locations with firm, level surfaces away from hazards that can cause instability (e.g., drop-offs, holes, slopes, bumps, ground obstructions, or debris).
• Use the scissor lift outside only when weather conditions are good. Scissor lifts rated for outdoor use are generally limited to wind speeds below 28 miles per hour.

Inspection and safety practices

• Inspection and safety practices for aerial lifts apply to scissor lifts as well.
• Manufacturers’ maintenance and inspection instructions should be followed, generally including testing and inspecting controls and components, checking guardrails, and testing brakes.

Prior to each work shift, workers should conduct a pre-start inspection to verify that the equipment and all its components are in safe operating condition. The inspection should follow manufacturer recommendations and include a check of/for:

• Proper fluid levels (oil, hydraulic, fuel, and coolant);
• Leaks of fluids;
• Wheels and tires;
• Battery and charger;
• Lower-level controls;
• Horn, gauges, lights, and backup alarms;
• Steering and brakes;
• Operating and emergency controls;
• Personal protective devices;
• Hydraulic, air, pneumatic, fuel, and electrical systems;
• Fiberglass and other insulating components;
• Placards; warnings; and operational, instructional, and control markings;
• Mechanical fasteners and locking pins;
• Cable and wiring harnesses;
• Outriggers, stabilizers, and other structures;
• Loose or missing parts; and
• Guardrail systems.

If any component is defective, a scissor lift must not be operated until it is repaired by a qualified person. Remove defective scissor lifts from service (tagged out) until repairs are made.

Work zone inspection

Employers must ensure that work zones are inspected for hazards and take corrective actions to eliminate such hazards before and during operation of a scissor lift. Items to look for include:

• Drop-offs, holes, or unstable surfaces such as loose dirt;
• Inadequate ceiling heights;
• Slopes, ditches, or bumps;
• Debris and floor obstructions;
• Overhead electric power lines and communication cables;
• Other overhead obstructions;
• Other hazardous locations and atmospheres;
• High wind and other severe weather conditions, such as ice; and
• The presence of others in close proximity to the work.

Maintenance

Employers must regularly maintain scissor lifts to ensure that they are safe to use (e.g., that the lifting mechanism will not collapse).

Manufacturers’ maintenance and inspection instructions should be followed. These will generally include how to:

• Test and inspect controls and components before each use;
• Ensure that guardrail systems are in good working condition; and
• Verify that brakes, once set, will hold the scissor lift in position.

Requirements for specific types of people

• OSHA defines a competent person as someone who can identify hazards in the relevant working conditions and has authorization to correct them and requires a competent person to be in charge of training and inspection.
• OSHA defines a qualified person as someone with a recognized degree/certification or equivalent demonstrated experience and requires a qualified person to perform certain design and training duties.
• Certain types of especially hazardous scaffolds and components must be designed by a registered professional engineer.

While “competent” and “qualified” ideally apply to everyone in a workplace, the Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA) specifies particular definitions for these adjectives and assigns different scaffolding responsibilities to each.

Competent person requirements

OSHA defines a competent person as “one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the surroundings or working conditions, which are unsanitary, hazardous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.” (1926.32)

The scaffolding standard requires a competent person to perform the following duties under these circumstances:

• In general:
  • Select and direct employees who erect, dismantle, move, or alter scaffolds.
  • Determine if it is safe for employees to work on or from a scaffold during storms or high winds and to ensure that a personal fall arrest system or wind screens protect these employees.
  • Note: Windscreens should not be used unless the scaffold is secured against the anticipated wind forces imposed.
• For training:
  • Train employees involved in erecting, disassembling, moving, operating, repairing, maintaining, or inspecting scaffolds to recognize associated work hazards.
• For inspections:
  • Inspect scaffolds and scaffold components for visible defects before each work shift and after any occurrence that could affect the structural integrity, and authorize prompt corrective actions.
  • Inspect ropes on suspended scaffolds prior to each work shift and after every occurrence that could affect the structural integrity, and authorize prompt corrective actions.
  • Inspect manila or plastic (or other synthetic) rope being used for top rails or mid rails.
• For suspension scaffolds:
  • Evaluate direct connections to support the load.
  • Evaluate the need to secure two-point and multi-point scaffolds to prevent swaying.
• For erectors and dismantlers:
  • Determine the feasibility and safety of providing fall protection and access.
  • Train erectors and dismantlers to recognize associated work hazards.
• For scaffold components:
  • Determine if a scaffold will be structurally sound when intermixing components from different manufacturers.
  • Determine if galvanic action has affected the capacity when using components of dissimilar metals.

Qualified person requirements

OSHA defines a qualified person as “one who by possession of a recognized degree, certificate, or professional standing, or who by extensive knowledge, training, and experience has successfully demonstrated the ability to solve or resolve problems related to the subject matter, the work, or the project.” (1926.32)

The standard requires a qualified person to perform the following duties in these circumstances:

• In general:
  • Design scaffolds and load them in accordance with the design.
• For training:
  • Train employees working on the scaffolds to recognize the associated hazards and understand procedures to control or minimize those hazards.
• For suspension scaffolds:
  • Design the rigging for single-point adjustable suspension scaffolds.
  • Design platforms on two-point adjustable suspension types that are less than 36 inches wide to prevent instability.
  • Make swaged attachments or spliced eyes on wire suspension ropes.
• For components and design:
  • Design scaffold components and direct their construction in accordance with the design.

Registered professional engineer requirements

The standard requires a registered professional engineer to perform the following duties in these circumstances:

• For suspension scaffolds:
  • Design the direct connections of masons’ multi-point adjustable suspension scaffolds.
• To design:
  • Scaffolds that are to be moved when employees are on them.
  • Pole scaffolds over 60 feet high.
  • Tube and coupler scaffolds over 125 feet high.
  • Fabricated frame scaffolds over 125 feet high above their baseplates.
  • Brackets on fabricated frame scaffolds used to support cantilevered loads in addition to workers.
  • Outrigger scaffolds and scaffold components.

Capacity and platform requirements

• Each scaffold and component must be able to support its own weight plus at least four times the maximum intended load.
• Scaffold platforms must be as free as possible of gaps between planking and must include fall protection on any platforms narrower than 18 inches.

Each scaffold and scaffold component must support without failure its own weight and at least four times the maximum intended load applied or transmitted to it.

A qualified person must design the scaffolds, which are loaded in accordance with that design.

Scaffolds and scaffold components must not be loaded in excess of their maximum intended loads or rated capacities, whichever is less.

Load-carrying timber members should be construction-grade lumber of a minimum of 1,500 lb-f/in².

Platform construction

Scaffold planking must be able to support, without failure, its own weight and at least four times the intended load.

Solid sawn wood, fabricated planks, and fabricated platforms may be used as scaffold planks following recommendations by the manufacturer or a lumber grading association or inspection agency.

Each scaffold platform and walkway must be at least 18 inches wide. When the work area is less than 18 inches wide, guardrails and/or personal fall arrest systems must be used.

Each platform must be planked and decked as fully as possible. The space between the platform and uprights cannot be more than 1 inch wide.

When side brackets or odd-shaped structures result in a wider opening between the platform and the uprights, this space must not exceed 9 inches.

Tables showing maximum permissible spans, rated load capacity, and nominal thickness are in Appendix A of the standard.

Platform safety procedures

The platform must not deflect more than 1/60 of the span when loaded.

The standard prohibits work on platforms cluttered with debris.

Employers are required to protect each employee on a scaffold more than 10 feet above a lower level from falling to that lower level.

To ensure adequate protection, guardrails must be installed along all open sides and ends before releasing the scaffold is released for use by employees, other than the erection and dismantling crews.

Guardrails are not required, however, when:

• The front end of all platforms are less than 14 inches from the face of the work.
• Outrigger scaffolds are 3 inches or less from the front edge.
• Employees are plastering and lathing 18 inches or less from the front edge.

Steel or plastic banding must not be used as a top rail or a mid-rail.

Supported scaffolds

• Supported scaffolds are platforms supported by legs or other rigid support.
• Scaffolds with a height-to-base-width ratio of more than 4:1 must be restrained by guying, tying, bracing, or similar, placed as required.

Supported scaffolds are platforms supported by legs, outrigger beams, brackets, poles, uprights, posts, frames, or similar rigid support.

The structural members, poles, legs, posts, frames, and uprights must be plumb and braced to prevent swaying and displacement.

Supported scaffolds with a height-to-base-width ratio of more than 4:1 must be restrained by guying, tying, bracing, or an equivalent means.

To prevent tipping, either the manufacturers’ recommendation or the following placements must be used for guys, ties, and braces:

• Guys, ties, or braces should be installed at the closest horizontal member to the 4:1 height and repeated vertically, with the top restraint no further than the 4:1 height from the top.
• Vertically — guys, ties, and braces should be installed every 20 feet or less for scaffolds less than 3 feet wide, and every 26 feet or less for scaffolds more than 3 feet wide.
• Horizontally — guys, ties, and braces should be installed at each end and at intervals not to exceed 30 feet from one end.

To ensure a firm foundation, supported scaffolds’ poles, legs, posts, frames, and uprights must bear on baseplates and mud sills or other adequate foundation.

Forklifts can support platforms only when the entire platform is attached to the fork and the forklift does not move horizontally when workers are on the platform.

Front-end loaders and similar equipment can support scaffold platforms only when they have been specifically designed by the manufacturer for such use.

There may be times when employers need to increase the height of employees on the supported scaffold. On a large-area scaffold, stilts may be used. When a guardrail system is used, the guardrail height must be increased in height corresponding to the height of the stilts.

The manufacturer must approve any alterations to the stilts.

Note: A large-area scaffold consists of a pole, tube, and coupler systems, or a fabricated frame scaffold erected over substantially the entire work area.

Suspension scaffolds

• Suspension scaffolds consist of one or more platforms suspended from an overhead structure.
• Proper support, secure connections, and fall protection are all especially vital when suspension scaffolds are being used.

A suspension scaffold contains one or more platforms suspended by ropes or other non-rigid means from an overhead structure. Examples of suspension scaffolds include:

• Single-point
• Multi-point
• Multi-level
• Two-point
• Adjustable
• Boatswains’ chair
• Catenary
• Chimney hoist
• Continuous run
• Elevator false car
• Go-devils
• Interior hung
• Masons’
• Stone setters’

Some of the requirements for all types of suspension scaffolds:

• Employers must ensure that all employees are trained to recognize the hazards associated with the type of scaffold being used.
• All support devices must rest on surfaces capable of supporting at least four times the load imposed on them by the scaffold when operating at the rated load of the hoist, or at least 1.5 times the load imposed on them by the scaffold at the stall capacity of the hoist, whichever is greater.
• A competent person must evaluate all direct connections prior to use to confirm that the supporting surfaces are able to support the imposed load.
• All suspension scaffolds must be tied or otherwise secured to prevent them from swaying, as determined by a competent person.
• Guardrails, a personal fall arrest system, or both must protect each employee who is more than 10 feet above a lower level from falling.
• A competent person must inspect ropes for defects prior to each work shift and after every occurrence that could affect a rope’s integrity.
• When scaffold platforms are more than 24 inches above or below a point of access, ladders, ramps, walkways, or similar surfaces must be used.
• When using direct access, the surface must not be more than 24 inches above or 14 inches horizontally from the surface.
• When lanyards are connected to horizontal lifelines or structural members on single-point or two-point adjustable scaffolds, the scaffold must have additional independent support lines equal in number and strength to the suspension lines and have automatic locking devices.
• Emergency escape and rescue devices must not be used as working platforms, unless designed to function as suspension scaffolds and emergency systems.
• No materials or devices may be used to increase the working height on a suspension scaffold. This includes ladders, boxes, and barrels.

Scaffold access

• When scaffold platforms are more than 2 feet above or below a point of access, employers must provide access, which can include ladders, stair towers, ramps, walkways, or integral prefabricated frames.

Employers must provide access when the scaffold platforms are more than 2 feet above or below a point of access.

Direct access is acceptable when the scaffold is not more than 14 inches horizontally and not more than 24 inches vertically from the other surfaces.

The standard prohibits the use of cross braces as a means of access.

Several types of access are permitted:

• Ladders, such as portable, hook-on, attachable, and stairway;
• Stair towers;
• Ramps and walkways; and
• Integral prefabricated frames.

Employees erecting and dismantling supported scaffolding must have a safe means of access provided after a competent person has determined the feasibility and analyzed the site conditions.

Clearance distances between scaffolds and power lines

• The required clearance distances between scaffolds and power lines depend on the lines’ voltage and whether they are insulated or not.

The standard requires specific clearance distances. The following table lists these distances:

Fall protection

• For most types of scaffold, the required fall protection is a personal fall arrest system, guardrails, or both.
• To protect workers from falling objects, employers should install protective equipment such as toeboards and nets and have workers wear hard hats.

Fall protection includes guardrail systems and personal fall arrest systems. Personal fall arrest systems include harnesses, components of the harness/belt (such as D-rings), snap hooks, lifelines, and anchorage points.

Vertical or horizontal lifelines may be used.

Lifelines must be independent of support lines and suspension ropes and not attached to the same anchorage point as the support or suspension ropes.

When working from an aerial lift, users should attach the fall arrest system to the boom or basket.

Fall protection for specific types of scaffold

The following chart illustrates the type of fall protection required for specific scaffolds:

Protection from overhead falling objects

To protect employees from falling hand tools, debris, and other small objects, employers should install toeboards, screens, guardrail systems, debris nets, catch platforms, canopy structures, or barricades. In addition, employees must wear hard hats.