Ergonomics is an applied science that involves arranging the work environment to fit the employee, rather than forcing the employee to fit the job. Designing the job to fit the employee can reduce stress and hazards, and eliminate many potential injuries and musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) associated with the overuse of muscles, bad posture, and repetitive motions. Also referred to as biotechnology or human engineering, it is intended to maximize productivity by reducing worker fatigue and discomfort.

• Employers need to provide a safe and healthful workplace for their employees, which includes applying ergonomic principles to prevent injuries.

Employers must provide a safe and healthful workplace for their employees. The number and severity of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) resulting from physical overexertion, and their associated costs, can be substantially reduced by applying ergonomic principles.

Essentially, implementing an ergonomic process can be effective in reducing the risk of developing MSDs in high-risk industries as diverse as construction, food processing, manufacturing, office jobs, healthcare, transportation and warehousing.

Key definitions

These terms, as defined here, are useful concepts when learning about ergonomics.

• Awkward postures: Positions that place strain on the body, in most cases affect the muscle groups that are involved in physical activity. Awkward postures include repeated or prolonged reaching, twisting, bending, kneeling, squatting, working with hands or arms overhead, or holding fixed positions.
• Force: The amount of physical effort required to perform a task, such as heavy lifting or pushing/pulling, or to maintain control of equipment or tools. The amount of force depends on the type of grip, the weight of an object, body posture, the type of activity, and the duration of the task.
• Forceful exertions: Tasks that require the worker to use significant force.
• Carpal tunnel syndrome: A disorder affecting the hands and wrists, involving the compression and entrapment of the median nerve where it passes through the wrist into the hand in the carpal tunnel. Symptoms include numbness, tingling, burning, and pain. In severe cases, there may be wasting of the muscles at the base of the thumb, a dry shiny palm, or clumsiness of the hand.
• Contact stress: This occurs when the body is pressed against a hard or sharp edge, resulting in placing too much pressure on nerves, tendons, and blood vessels. For example, using the palm of the hand as a hammer can increase a worker’s risk of suffering a musculoskeletal disorder (MSD).
• Degenerative disc — Damage to the gel-like cushions between the bones in the spine. Released gel presses on the nerve. Symptoms include numbness, pain, and weakness, usually in the leg and hips, but sometimes in the arms and upper back.
• DeQuervain’s disease: A disease in which the tendon sheath of the thumb is inflamed.
• Epicondylitis: Irritation of the tissue that connects the forearm muscle to the elbow.
• Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs): Injuries and disorders of the soft tissues (muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, and cartilage) and nervous system of the upper and lower limbs, neck, and lower back that are caused, precipitated or exacerbated by sudden exertion or prolonged exposure to physical factors such as repetition, force, vibration, or awkward posture.
• Raynaud’s syndrome: A condition that occurs when the blood vessels of the hand are damaged as a result of repeated exposure to vibration for long periods of time. The skin and muscles are unable to get the necessary oxygen from the blood and eventually die.
• Repetition: The action of performing the same motions over and over again, placing stress on the muscles and tendons. The severity of risk depends on how often the action is repeated, the speed of movement, the number of muscles involved, and the required force.
• Sprain: Injury or tearing of a ligament. Ligaments attach one bone to another or support organs.
• Strain: Injury to muscles that have been stretched or used too much. Symptoms include muscle irritation, pain, and discomfort.
• Tendinitis: Tendon inflammation that occurs when a muscle or tendon is repeatedly tensed from overuse, vibration, or unaccustomed usage of the wrist and shoulder. With further exertion, some of the fibers that make up the tendon can actually fray or tear apart. Symptoms include burning pain or dull ache, swelling or puffiness, and snapping or jerking movements.
• Tenosynovitis: Inflammation or injury to the synovial sheath surrounding the tendon.
• Trigger finger: A disorder caused when a groove is worn into the flexing tendon of the finger.
• Vibration: Being exposed to vibration means operating tools or equipment that typically have high or moderate vibration levels, such as sanders, grinders, chippers, routers, drills, and saws. This can lead to nerve damage.

• Ergonomic injuries are covered under the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act, which requires employers to provide a safe and healthful workplace from known or recognized hazards.

Currently, there is no Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) regulation on ergonomics, but the subject is always near the top of the list of concerns because each year in private industry, about 12 percent of all occupational injuries or illnesses with days away from work are from overexertion in lifting or lowering objects.

However, the agency does cite ergonomic injuries under the General Duty Clause of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act, Section 5(a)(1). To implement a plan in their workplace, employers can:

• Define clear goals and objectives for the ergonomic process, discuss them with their employees, assign responsibilities to designated staff members, and communicate clearly with the workforce.
• Encourage employees to report symptoms or injuries related to musculoskeletal disorders including, but not limited to, carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, shoulder pain, epicondylitis, trigger finger, muscle strains, and back injuries.
• Establish administrative controls such as worker rotation, more task variety, and increased rest breaks.
• Implement evaluation and corrective action to periodically assess the effectiveness of the ergonomic process and to ensure its continuous improvement and long-term success.
• Involve employees in work-site assessments and solution development and implementation.
• Provide personal protective equipment (PPE) such as knee pads, vibration-reducing gloves, and similar devices.
• Train employees to ensure they are aware of ergonomics and its benefits.

• No specific ergonomic training is required, but employers should train employees in how to spot and report hazards and reduce their risk of injury.

Since there is no ergonomic standard, there are also no training requirements. However, that doesn’t mean employers don’t need to provide training. Depending on the workplace, ergonomic hazards may exist somewhere. That means employees need to be trained in how to spot and report hazards and reduce their risk of injury. In specific, employers can:

• Provide hands-on practice when new tools, equipment, or procedures are introduced to the workforce.
• Use several types of visual aids (e.g., pictures, charts, and videos) depicting actual tasks in their workplaces.
• Use demonstration techniques when training employees about proper performance of jobs.
• Hold small-group discussions and problem-solving sessions.
• Conduct training in a manner and language that all employees understand.
• Give employees ample opportunity for questions.
• Demonstrate proper chair, computer, and workstation adjustments.
• Provide employee training on using job aids to prevent awkward motion or repetitive movements.
• Have each employee demonstrate the lifting techniques properly before leaving the class.
• Follow up with employees to make sure they are able to use the techniques on the job. Emphasize the importance of rest periods and taking occasional stretch breaks between tasks.
• Explain how employees can request an ergonomics evaluation and who they should contact with questions.
• Explain the company’s efforts to implement back-safety controls.
• Explain any company programs that use exercise, stretching, or a special break or work rotation cycle to combat musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).
• Stress the need for early reporting, and explain the system for reporting back disorders, signs and symptoms of back disorders, and back hazards.

• Common causes of ergonomic injuries include poor lifting, fatigue, repetitive motion, and awkward postures and movements.

Ergonomics-related injuries are a major hazard in the workplace. Not only do they cause employees pain and trouble at the time, they can take a long time to heal — or even be permanently disabling. According to the General Duty Clause of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act, employers are responsible for providing employees with a safe and healthful workplace.

These types of injuries add up to a lot of missed work which can result in low productivity. Do your best to prevent injuries and keep your facility running smoothly. Common back injuries employee face include:

• Fatigue,
• Repetitive motion injuries,
• Injuries caused by awkward postures and/or movements,
• Slipped disks, and
• Pinched vertebrae.

These types of back injuries can be debilitating no matter how minor or severe. Keep in mind, even minor injuries can get worse as they progress overtime. Stress to employees the importance of reporting back injuries early on. Their best chance at getting healthy and back to work sooner is to address the injury as fast as possible.

• Employers should put engineering and administrative controls in place to prevent on-the-job back injuries.
• Risk factors for back injury include amount of force, repetitive movement, body position, and general physical condition.

Back problems are among the most common types of injuries suffered on the job, some serious enough to require surgery and lengthy recovery periods. Other back injuries can lead to permanent disabilities and work restrictions.

What’s the importance?

Every year, thousands of American employees are disabled by musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), including back injury. Jobs that expose employees to excessive repetitive lifting, force (pushing/pulling), awkward postures, contact stress, or vibration are a major cause of this problem.

It’s important that employers implement controls to prevent back injuries. This may involve accommodating employees through design of tasks, work schedules, workstations, controls, tools, and equipment. In addition, it may involve engineering and designing equipment that reduces a job’s back injury risk.

What are the regulatory requirements?

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) cites ergonomic injuries under the General Duty Clause of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act, Section 5(a)(1). All employees covered by OSHA fall under this section, which requires employers to provide a safe and healthful workplace from hazards that may exist. Employers should implement a plan in their workplace to eliminate, as best they can, any back-related hazards.

Specifically, employers can:

• Define clear goals and objectives for the ergonomic process, discuss them with their employees, assign responsibilities to designated staff members, and communicate clearly with the workforce.
• Encourage employees to report symptoms or injuries related to back injuries. Establish engineering controls to reduce the amount employees are required to lift throughout the workday.
• Establish evaluations and corrective action to periodically assess the effectiveness of the ergonomic process and to ensure its continuous improvement and long-term success.
• Involve employees in work-site assessments and solution development and implementation.
• Provide training for employees to ensure they are aware of ergonomics and its benefits.

What are the risk factors?

To implement the right controls for their workplace, employers should identify the risk factors most likely to cause injury to employees. Risk factors that may lead to the development of back injuries include:

• Excessive force — Exerting excessive force, including lifting or carrying heavy objects, pushing or pulling heavy loads, manually pouring materials, or maintaining control of equipment or tools.
• Repetitive motion — Performing the same or similar tasks repetitively, or the same motion or series of motions continually or frequently for an extended period of time. This includes repetitive twisting, bending, and reaching.
• Awkward postures — Working in awkward postures or being in the same posture for long periods of time, or using positions that place stress on the body, such as prolonged or repetitive reaching above shoulder height, leaning over a counter or work surface, or twisting the torso while lifting.
  • Prolonged sitting also stresses the body, particularly the lower back and the thighs, and may cause the lower back (lumbar) region to bow outward if there is inadequate support. This abnormal curvature (called kyphosis) can lead to painful lower back problems, a common complaint among drivers of dump trucks, backhoes, and other heavy construction equipment.
• Faulty body mechanics — Poor physical condition, lifting improperly, or poor posture.
• Other factors — Natural age-related degeneration of the back, inactivity both at work and at home, seasonal activity undertaken without prior physical conditioning, stress, and vibration.

• Although OSHA doesn’t require training in lifting properly or avoiding back injury, employers may need to train employees on these things as part of their ergonomics plan.
• The basic procedure for proper lifting includes planning, situational awareness, and lifting with the legs.

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) doesn’t require training — nor do they say training will prevent back injuries from happening. However, training may need to be part of an employer’s ergonomics plan.

Training should be coupled with any workplace controls that are implemented, including engineering or administrative controls. Employees need training and hands-on practice with new tools, equipment, and work practices to make sure they have the skills necessary to work safely.

Training on safe lifting techniques and generally safe work practices to protect the back should be an element of any back-safety program. Communicating to employees the hazards of certain types of movements and methods can significantly reduce those high-hazard practices and cut down on back pain and injury.

Employee training should go over:

• Back hazards and their causes;
• Proper use of equipment and how to perform tasks (proper posture/lifting);
• Stretching and warmup exercises to perform prior to lifting tasks;
• How to recognize symptoms of back disorders; and
• Who to contact to report hazards and back disorders.

Training could also include:

• Planning ahead when lifting jobs are necessary;
• Getting help to lift objects that are too heavy;
• Never twisting or turning suddenly while carrying a load;
• Reducing vertical and horizontal lifting distances;
• Reducing reach distances;
• Making sure the path is clear before picking up the load;
• Taking careful steps;
• Lifting with the legs and not with the back;
• Maintaining proper posture when standing, sitting, or reclining; and
• Following a sensible diet and exercise program for overall good health.

Employers should enforce the lifting methods that are taught. The incident rates for lifting injuries speak for themselves, so employees should be taught to think of improper lifting as a dangerous activity.

In a well-run workplace, floors don’t accumulate grease, and ladders with missing rungs don’t get used. By the same token, poor lifting techniques shouldn’t pass unnoticed.

Proper lifting

Employees should be trained to lift correctly. Many low back strains and injuries can be avoided by this basic procedure for good lifting:

1. Size up the load before trying to lift it. Test the weight by lifting at one of the corners. If the load is too heavy or of an awkward shape, get help from a fellow worker or use a mechanical lifting device like a dolly.
2. Make sure the path to your destination is clear before picking up the load. Check for obstacles and hazards in your path, such as holes or spilled liquids. Make sure of your footing before setting out.
3. Bend the knees, keep the back straight, and lift with the legs. This is the single most important rule when lifting moderate to heavy objects. Take a tip from professional weightlifters: they can lift tremendous weights because they lift with their legs, not their backs.
   1. When lifting a crate or box, place your feet close to the object.
   2. Center yourself over the load, then bend your knees and get a good handhold.
   3. Lift straight up, smoothly. Allow your legs, not your back, to do the work.
4. Do not twist or turn the body during the lift or once a lift is made. Keep the load close to your body, and keep it steady. Turn your body by changing foot positions. Any sudden twisting or turning could result in injuring your back.
5. Set the load down properly. Setting the load down is just as important as lifting it. Lower the load slowly by bending your knees, keeping your back upright, and letting your legs do most of the work. Don’t let go of the load until it is secure on the floor.

• Fatigue is a result of stress on the body.
• Risk factors include working in awkward postures or stationary positions for too long, lifting heavy materials, working in a hot environment for extended periods of time, or performing repetitive tasks or tasks that involve high force.

Fatigue’s effects on the worker extend beyond just sleepiness. It increases the risk for illnesses and injuries. It slows down reaction times and can also cause pain and discomfort, which can be a warning sign of a musculoskeletal disorder.

How does it apply?

• Fatigue can affect any worker and contribute to accidents or injuries. In some cases, OSHA can issue citations related to excessive fatigue.

When the term “fatigue” is used in the context of ergonomics, it generally means that the muscle is no longer able to work and must be allowed time to recover, or that the point of damage or deformation of the tissue has been reached.

OSHA can cite employers for fatigue or ergonomics under the General Duty Clause. A Letter of Interpretation dated July 12, 2016, says, “OSHA has long been aware of the hazards of sleep deprivation from working night shifts and has addressed this serious issue in public forums. OSHA has also issued citations to companies when they ignored the human factor of employee fatigue from excessive overtime.”

This doesn’t mean OSHA can cite a company just because employees are tired. To prove a violation of the General Duty Clause, OSHA must show that:

• The employer failed to address a hazard to employees;
• The hazard was recognized;
• The hazard was causing or was likely to cause death or serious physical harm; and
• There was a feasible and useful method to correct the hazard.

What are the key definitions?

• Awkward postures – Being in the same posture for long periods of time, or positions that place stress on the body, such as repeated or prolonged reaching, twisting, bending, kneeling, squatting, or working overhead with your hands or arms.
• Ergonomics – The science of fitting the job to the worker.
• Fatigue – A feeling of weariness, tiredness, or lack of energy.
• Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) – Injuries and disorders of the soft tissues (muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, and cartilage) and nervous system of the upper and lower limbs, neck, and lower back that are often caused, precipitated, or exacerbated by prolonged exposure to physical factors such as repetition, force, vibration, or awkward posture.
• Repetition – The action of performing the same motions over and over again, placing stress on the muscles and tendons. The severity of risk depends on how often the action is repeated, the speed of movement, the number of muscles involved, and the required force.

What are the regulatory requirements?

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) cites ergonomic injuries under the General Duty Clause of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act, Section 5(a)(1). All employees covered by OSHA fall under this section, which requires employers to provide a safe and healthful workplace from hazards that may exist. Employers should implement a plan in their workplace to eliminate, as best they can, any fatigue hazards related to poor ergonomics.

The General Duty Clause applies to hazards likely to cause “death or serious physical harm,” so a fatigued office worker might not generate a citation. However, if machine operators get seriously injured after working long hours, OSHA might issue a citation.

Specifically, employers can:

• Eliminate awkward, forceful, and uncomfortable positions.
• Reduce or modify work that requires heavy lifting, twisting movements, and awkward material handling.
• Offer adjustable workstations to fit the worker’s body and their work. This can include a chair with adjustability features, a height adjustable table, along with equipment (computer monitor, keyboard, mouse, tools, machinery, etc.) that are the right distance, angle, and position for the worker.
• Encouraging stretch breaks throughout the day. This can help the worker to relax, refresh, and refocus their mind and body. Stretching can also reduce strain, relieve tension, and improve blood circulation.
• Manage workload and time more effectively. Set realistic deadlines, delegate work where possible, and prioritize tasks.
• Provide training for workers to ensure they are aware of ergonomics and its benefits.

What are the risk factors?

• Risk factors include the body being stressed by an awkward and/or stationary posture, or repeated movements. Age, health conditions, and fitness also affect risk levels.

Working long hours, working night shifts, and performing repetitive or physically difficult tasks can all contribute to fatigue. Although many people likely associate the term “fatigue” with inadequate sleep, in the context of ergonomics, employers should also consider muscular fatigue.

Factors such as age, health conditions, and activities outside of work all affect the number of hours an employee can work or perform repetitive tasks before fatigue becomes a safety concern. In addition, the type of work affects the seriousness of potential injuries.

Considering the adverse effects of fatigue on both safety and productivity, employers should watch for signs of fatigue and encourage employees to take sick time or vacation if their condition may pose a threat to themselves or others. Employers can even send employees home if they arrive unfit for work, such as showing up hungover on two hours of sleep. If that employee holds a safety-sensitive position, the worker’s condition might even be a “recognized hazard” that employers are obligated to address.

What employee training is required?

• There are no specific employee training requirements on worker fatigue as it relates to fatigue and ergonomics, but OSHA may cite employers under the General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act.

The ergonomic guidelines emphasize training employees in proper work techniques to avoid repetitive motions, vibration, improper lifting, and other injury risks associated with fatigue. Training workers on ergonomic risks and preventive measures is a best practice that can help avoid injury. In addition, delivering training based on evaluations of hazards could help avoid an OSHA citation.

To identify a need for training, an employer should survey the workplace for risk factors and review injury reports for cases that might indicate a need for ergonomic evaluation. Safety professionals might also work with Human Resources to identify potential factors such as long hours or performing repetitive tasks for extended periods of time.

When risk factors cannot be sufficiently mitigated, training should also cover warning signs of fatigue that employees can self-report, recognize a need for rotation to another task, or allow the company to take other protective steps.

• Repetitive motion injuries are one of the most frequent types of injuries, caused by repeating the same action over and over.
• Risk factors include excessive force, motion, and compression, and inadequate recovery time.

Repetitive motion injuries are caused by repeating the same action over and over. These types of injuries are long-term and can affect employees’ health even years after they retire. That’s why it’s important that they know how to spot and avoid repetitive motion hazards, so they can avoid pain down the road.

Why is this important?

Among the many ergonomic disorders that can result from ergonomically incorrect actions or work/task design, repetitive motions are one of the most frequent types of injuries. Other than back injuries, repetitive motion injuries probably account for the largest percentage of ergonomic disorders in the work environment.

What are the regulatory requirements?

There are no specific regulatory requirements for repetitive motions. However, because repetitive motion injuries are a commonly recognized hazard, the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) may cite their occurrence under the General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act.

What are the risk factors?

Prolonged exposure to repetitive motions can cause musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) or cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs). Conditions likely to cause MSDs or CTDs include the following:

• Exerting excessive force puts strain on the body.
• Excessive repetition of movements can irritate tendons and increase pressure on nerves.
• Static hand postures, or positions that a worker must hold for long periods of time, can restrict blood flow and damage muscles.
• Motion, such as increased speed or acceleration when bending and twisting the hands, can increase the amount of force exerted on the palms or fingers.
• Compression, from grasping sharp edges like tool handles, can concentrate force on small areas of the body, reduce blood flow and nerve transmission, and damage tendons and tendon sheaths.
• Inadequate recovery time due to overtime, lack of breaks, and failure to vary tasks leaves tissues without enough time to heal.

CTDs can affect nearly all tissues, nerves, tendons, tendon sheaths, and muscles, with the upper extremities being the most frequently affected. These painful and sometimes crippling injuries develop gradually over periods of weeks, months, or years. They result from repeated actions, such as twisting and bending of the hands, arms, and wrists.

A common risk factor among these disorders is the use of force, combined with repetitive motion over time. These conditions are common to individuals who perform tasks such as assembly line work, sewing, meatpacking, and lifting.

Today, CTDs are recognized as a major occupational health hazard in the workplace and account for the largest share of occupational illnesses known as “repeated trauma” disorders.

What employee training is required?

There are no specific employee training requirements on ergonomics, but OSHA may cite employers under the General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act. The ergonomic guidelines emphasize training employees in proper work techniques to avoid repetitive motions, vibration, improper lifting, and other injury risks.

According to OSHA, training is an important element in the ergonomic process. It ensures that employees:

• Are aware of ergonomics and its benefits;
• Are informed about ergonomics-related concerns in the workplace; and
• Understand the importance of reporting early symptoms of MSDs.

Training prepares employees to actively participate in many aspects of the ergonomics process, including problem identification, solution implementation, and process evaluation. When training is effective, the employees will:

• Learn the principles of ergonomics and their applications, including risk factors associated with MSD hazards;
• Learn about the proper use of equipment, tools, and machine controls;
• Become more aware of work tasks that may lead to pain or injury;
• Recognize early signs and symptoms of MSDs or CTDs;
• Understand the importance of addressing early indications of MSDs and CTDs before serious injury develops; and
• Understand work procedures for reporting work-related injuries and illnesses, as required by OSHA’s injury and illness recording and reporting regulation (29 CFR 1904).

Employees will benefit from an orientation and job-specific hands-on training before they begin their tasks, especially on jobs with potential ergonomic risk factors. Employees should also be:

• Notified of workplace changes,
• Instructed on using new equipment, and
• Informed about new work procedures.