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focus-area/safety-and-health/heat-and-cold-exposure
555327523
['Heat and Cold Exposure']

Some jobs require employees to work in very hot or cold conditions. Both temperature extremes can lead to serious injury or illness, or even death. Employers are required to make their employees’ job duties and environment as free of hazards as possible, and this includes hazards related to both heat and cold exposure.

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Exposure to heat and cold

Some jobs require employees to work in very hot or cold conditions. Both temperature extremes can lead to serious injury or illness, or even death. Employers are required to make their employees’ job duties and environment as free of hazards as possible, and this includes hazards related to both heat and cold exposure.

Heat exposure

  • Heat stress refers to heat-related illnesses that occur when the body can’t maintain a normal temperature.
  • All employers with employees exposed to hot work environments must take steps to mitigate heat stress, as a hazard covered under the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act of 1970.

Heat stress can occur in both indoor and outdoor work settings. Indoor operations involving high air temperatures, radiant heat sources, heavy lifting and other strenuous physical activities, and direct physical contact with hot objects increase the potential for heat stress. Outdoor work during the hot summer months, especially activities that require workers to wear semipermeable or impermeable protective clothing, also increases the likelihood of heat stress.

What’s the standard number?

Heat exposure is covered under the Occupational Safety & Health (OSH) Act of 1970, Section 5(a)(1), known as the General Duty Clause. This requires employers to provide all of their employees with work and a workplace that are free from recognized hazards that are likely to cause death or serious harm.

Who must comply?

All employers with employees exposed to hot work environments must take steps to mitigate heat-related illness due to heat stress. The term heat stress is used to describe a number of heat-related illnesses that occur when the body is not able to maintain a normal temperature. Heat-related disorders include heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat rashes.

Key definitions

  • Acclimatization means exposing the employee to the hot environment for progressively longer periods to allow the body to adapt.
  • Administrative controls means reducing specific job hazards through changes in work procedures (e.g., written safety policies, schedule changes, training, and supervision).
  • Conduction means the heat exchange between the heat and a surface.
  • Convection means the exchange between the skin surface and the surrounding air.
  • Engineering controls means reducing or eliminating specific job hazards through the use of or substitution of machinery or equipment (e.g., ventilation, air cooling, fans, shielding, and insulation).
  • Fluid replacement means providing cool water to employees and encouraging them to drink small amounts frequently.

What are the requirements for employers?

  • Employers must take appropriate measures to protect both indoor and outdoor workers from heat stress.
  • These measures include engineering controls such as fans and administrative controls such as training and water breaks.
  • Employers can also monitor employees’ heat stress by taking their pulse and/or oral temperature, and comparing their before- and after-work weights to measure water loss.

Employers are responsible for providing the necessary equipment, supplies, conditions, and information to protect their workers from heat stress.

Protecting indoor workers from heat stress

  • Engineering controls include:
    • Cooling the air with fans,
    • Shielding,
    • Proper ventilation,
    • Insulation,
    • Air conditioning, and
    • Power assists and other ways of reducing physical demands.
  • Administrative controls and work practices include:
    • Training employees to avoid heat stress,
    • Educating them on the dangers of using alcohol and drugs (even over-the-counter medications), and
    • Acclimatizing them to the heat.

Protecting outdoor workers from heat stress

Outdoor workers are at an increased risk of experiencing heat-related illnesses during the hot summer months, when sweating alone may not be enough to cool the body. To prevent heat-related illnesses and fatalities, employers should remind employees to:

  • Drink water every 15 minutes, even if they are not thirsty.
  • Rest in the shade to cool down.
  • Wear a hat and light-colored clothing.
  • Learn the signs of heat illness and what to do in an emergency.
  • Keep an eye on fellow workers.
  • Take it easy during the first days of work in the heat to acclimatize.

Monitoring workers for signs of heat stress

To monitor workers, employers can measure:

  • Heart rate. As early as possible in the rest period, the radial pulse can be counted during a 30-second period.
    • If the heart rate exceeds 110 beats per minute at the beginning of the rest period, the next work cycle should be shortened by one-third, with no change to the length of the rest period.
    • If the heart rate still exceeds 110 beats per minute at the next rest period, the work cycle should be shortened by one-third.
  • Oral temperature. A clinical thermometer or similar device can be used to measure the oral temperature (3 minutes under the tongue) at the end of the work period, before drinking.
    • If oral temperature exceeds 99.6 degrees F (37.6 degrees C), the next work cycle should be shortened by one-third, with no change to the length of the rest period.
    • If oral temperature still exceeds 99.6 degrees F (37.6 degrees C) at the beginning of the next rest period, the work cycle should be shortened by one-third.
    • Workers should not be permitted to wear semi-permeable or impermeable garments if their oral temperature exceeds 100.6 degrees F (38.1 degrees C).
  • Body water loss. At the beginning and end of each workday, weight can be measured on a scale accurate to 0.25 pounds to see if enough fluids are being taken to prevent dehydration.
    • Weights should be taken while the employee wears similar clothing or, ideally, no clothing.
    • The body water loss should not exceed 1.5 percent total body weight loss in a workday.

Training

Although the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) doesn’t require training specific to heat stress by standard, employers must teach workers to recognize the signs of heat stress in themselves and their coworkers if they are exposed to extreme heat on the job.

Training should cover the following types of heat-related conditions:

  • Heat stroke. This is a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body is no longer able to regulate temperature through sweating.
    • Symptoms include confusion; loss of consciousness; convulsions; hot, dry skin; and extremely high body temperature.
    • First aid includes calling 911; moving the affected worker to a cool, dry area; and aggressively attempting to lower body temperature by removing outer clothing and wetting the skin. The worker needs immediate medical attention and must not be left unattended.
  • Heat exhaustion. This condition requires prompt first-aid treatment to prevent it from becoming more serious.
    • Symptoms include clammy skin, nausea, headache, dizziness, weakness, thirst, muscle cramps, and fainting.
    • First aid treatment includes moving the employee to a cooler area, removing outer clothing, and giving cool fluids to drink.
  • Heat cramps. These are painful muscle cramps that occur after sweating and inadequate fluid intake.
    • Symptoms are involuntary muscle spasms and excessive sweating.
    • First aid includes moving the employee to a cool area and providing fluids to drink, especially electrolyte-replacing liquids such as sports drinks. The affected employee should gently stretch the cramped muscle(s).
  • Heat fatigue. This occurs when workers have had a chance to adapt to the hot working environment.
    • Symptoms include trouble concentrating and working.
    • First aid involves moving the worker to a cooler area and encouraging rest.
  • Heat rash. This, also known as prickly heat, appears as itchy red bumps on the skin.
    • First aid includes rinsing the affected area with cool water and thoroughly drying the skin.

Training should also give workers the knowledge to do the following:

  • Protect and acclimatize new workers,
  • Drink enough fluids,
  • Balance work with sufficient rest breaks in a cooler area,
  • Recognize personal and environmental risk factors and when to use extra caution about heat,
  • Provide immediate first aid when needed, and
  • Contact emergency medical services.

Employee risk

  • Heat-related illnesses can be serious hazards for employees and include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat rash, and heat stroke.
  • Factors that increase employees’ risk for heat-related illnesses include environmental factors such as direct sunlight, lack of ventilation, and wearing heavy clothing or PPE, as well as health factors such as age, pregnancy, and chronic illness.

Heat-related illness is a serious hazard employees face while working in hot environments without protection from the elements. In addition, environmental and health factors also increase the employee risk of experiencing heat stress.

Heat-related illness

  • Fatigue: Occurs more quickly during exertion in hot conditions because of the body’s natural cooling methods. When the body circulates more blood to the upper layers of the skin in order to release body heat to the environment, relatively less blood is available to provide active muscles, the brain, and other internal organs with the energy they need for peak performance, thereby causing fatigue.
  • Heat cramps: Occur in tired muscles when the worker sweats profusely and drinks large quantities of water.
  • Heat exhaustion: Can result when a person has lost large amounts of fluid by sweating.
  • Heat rash: Occurs as a result of the body’s natural cooling mechanisms. Body heat is released through sweating. This cooling action is most effective if the sweat is able to evaporate into a dry environment. When the air is humid, the skin can remain moist from sweat. If sweat ducts become plugged, a skin inflammation in the form of a rash can develop.
  • Heat stroke: Occurs when the body’s temperature regulatory system fails and sweating has become inadequate to remove excess body heat.
  • Sunburn: Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can produce sunburn. Symptoms include red, sensitive, inflamed skin and even blisters.
    • To relieve the pain, soak sunburns in cold water, dry the area, apply ointment, and cover. Severe sunburn requires medical treatment. The only way to prevent sunburn is to avoid sun exposure (by wearing a hat, long sleeves, and sunscreen).

Environmental risk factors

These environmental factors increase the employee risk of heat-related illness:

  • High temperatures and humidity
  • Exposure to indoor sources of heat (ovens, furnaces)
  • Direct sunlight
  • Heavy clothing
  • Limited airflow or air movement
  • Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE)
  • Heavy workload

Health risk factors

These factors influence the employee risk of heat-related illness:

  • Level of physical fitness
  • Opportunity to acclimate to conditions
  • Age
  • Dehydration
  • Obesity
  • Alcohol or drug use
  • Infection or illness
  • Sunburn
  • Certain medications
  • Pregnancy
  • Previous heat-related illness
  • Chronic disease

Solutions

  • Solutions to help control employees’ heat exposure include wearing wet clothing or specialized PPE with cooling mechanisms, resting, drinking fluids, and pacing or toning down the work.

Sometimes workers are required to wear heavy clothing to protect against contact with hot materials or surfaces. Or they must wear impermeable chemical protective clothing, which can contribute to their exposure to heat.

There are specialized types of personal protective equipment (PPE) that can be worn under other types of protective clothing to cool workers. Ice vests have many pockets where ice packets can be inserted. Water-cooled garments have a battery-driven pump that circulates coolant through chambers in the clothing. Another system uses an air supply to circulate air around workers in impermeable suits.

Work practices to help control heat hazards

A more common technique that might be considered PPE is to wear wet clothing, headbands, or bandanas. This could also be considered a type of work practice control.

Other work practices that help control exposure to the heat include:

  • Using intermittent rest periods to recover from the heat.
  • Drinking about 5 to 7 ounces of fluids every 15 to 20 minutes to replenish body fluids.
  • Using relief workers.
  • Using the buddy system (working in pairs) when working in hot conditions.
  • Pacing the work, or reducing the physical demands of the work.
  • Providing cool recovery or shaded rest areas.
  • Scheduling work for cooler times of the day or when heat-producing equipment isn’t being operated.
  • Wearing light, loose-fitting, breathable (e.g., cotton) clothing.

Cold exposure

  • Workers who work in a cold environment are at risk of cold stress, especially if they spend extended periods there.
  • All employers with employees exposed to cold work environments must take steps to mitigate cold stress, as a hazard covered under the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act of 1970.

Anyone working in a cold environment may be at risk of cold stress. Some workers may be required to work outdoors in cold environments and for extended periods — for example, snow cleanup crews, sanitation workers, police officers and emergency response and recovery personnel (like firefighters), and emergency medical technicians. Cold stress can be encountered in these types of work environments.

What constitutes extreme cold and its effects can vary across different areas of the country. In regions that are not used to winter weather, near-freezing temperatures are considered “extreme cold.” A cold environment forces the body to work harder to maintain its temperature. Whenever temperatures drop below normal and wind speed increases, heat can leave the body more rapidly.

What’s the standard number?

Cold exposure is covered under the Occupational Safety & Health (OSH) Act of 1970, Section 5(a)(1), known as the General Duty Clause. This requires employers to provide all of their employees with work and a workplace that are free from recognized hazards that are likely to cause death or serious harm.

Who must comply?

Although the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) does not have a specific standard that covers working in cold environments, employers have a responsibility to provide workers with employment and a workplace that are free from recognized hazards, including cold stress, that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to them (Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970). Employers should, therefore, train workers on the hazards of the job and safety measures to use, such as engineering controls and safe work practices, that will protect workers’ safety and health.

Key definitions

  • Cold stress occurs by driving down the skin temperature and eventually the internal body temperature (core temperature). This may lead to serious health problems and may cause tissue damage and possibly death.
  • The cold stress equation is defined by OSHA as follows: low temperatures + wind speed + wetness = injuries and illness.
  • Frostbite is an injury to the body that is caused by freezing of the skin and underlying tissues. The lower the temperature, the more quickly frostbite will occur. Frostbite typically affects the extremities, particularly the feet and hands. Amputation may be required in severe cases.
  • Hypothermia occurs when body heat is lost faster than it can be replaced and the normal body temperature (98.6 degrees F) drops to less than 95 degrees F. Hypothermia is most likely at very cold temperatures, but it can occur even at cool temperatures (above 40 degrees F) if a person becomes chilled from rain, sweat, or submersion in cold water.
  • Trench foot or immersion foot is caused by prolonged exposure to wet and cold temperatures. It can occur at temperatures as high as 60 degrees F if the feet are constantly wet. Non-freezing injury occurs because wet feet lose heat 25 times faster than dry feet. To prevent heat loss, the body constricts the blood vessels to shut down circulation in the feet. The skin tissue begins to die because of a lack of oxygen and nutrients and due to the buildup of toxic products.
  • Wind chill is the temperature the body feels when air temperature and wind speed are combined. For example, when the air temperature is 40 degrees F and the wind speed is 35 mph, the effect on the exposed skin is as if the air temperature was 28 degrees F.

What are the requirements for employers?

  • Employers are required to provide engineering controls, use safe work practices, and give workers frequent breaks in warm areas.
  • Employers must also train workers in the practices and knowledge they need to stay safe in the cold.

Employers should:

  • Provide engineering controls. For example, radiant heaters may be used to warm workers in outdoor security stations. If possible, shield work areas from drafts or wind to reduce wind chill.
  • Use safe work practices. It is easy to become dehydrated in cold weather. Employers can provide plenty of warm sweetened liquids to workers. If possible, employers can schedule heavy work during the warmer part of the day. Employers can assign workers to tasks in pairs (buddy system), so that they can monitor each other for signs of cold stress. Workers can be allowed to interrupt their work, if they are extremely uncomfortable.
  • Give workers frequent breaks in warm areas. Acclimatize new workers and those returning after time away from work, by gradually increasing their workload, and allowing more frequent breaks in warm areas, as they build up a tolerance for working in the cold environment.

Training

Employers are also responsible for training workers in preventing, recognizing, and responding to cold stress. At a minimum, this training should include:

  • Preventing cold-related injuries and illnesses;
  • Dressing for cold, wet, and windy conditions;
  • Recognizing the symptoms of cold stress;
  • Monitoring oneself and others for symptoms;
  • Performing first aid and calling for medical assistance; and
  • Recognizing and staying safe from other potential winter-related hazards, such as icy surfaces and downed power lines.

Employee risk

  • The biggest risks employees face from cold are frostbite and hypothermia.
  • Cold risks can be amplified by aspects of employee health such as preexisting conditions, age, and certain medications.

Serious cold-related illnesses and injuries may occur and permanent tissue damage and death may result if employees stay in cold environments for too long. Cold-related illnesses can slowly overcome an employee who has been chilled by low temperatures, brisk winds, or wet clothing. The biggest risks employees face are frostbite and hypothermia. In addition, employee health can increase chances of cold stress while on the job.

Frostbite

Frostbite usually affects the fingers, hands, toes, feet, ears, and nose.

What can happen to the body?

  • Freezing in deep layers of skin and tissue;
  • Pale, waxy-white skin color; and
  • Skin becoming hard and numb.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia occurs when the normal body temperature (98.6 degrees F) drops to or below 95 degrees F.

What can happen to the body?

  • Fatigue or drowsiness;
  • Uncontrolled shivering;
  • Cool, bluish skin;
  • Slurred speech;
  • Clumsy movements; and
  • Irritable, irrational, or confused behavior.

The role of employee health

Employees are at an increased risk to cold stress if they:

  • Have predisposing health conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and hypertension;
  • Are in poor physical condition, have a poor diet, or are older; or
  • Take certain medications (some medications can negatively affect employees while they work in cold environments).

Solutions

  • Employers can protect employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries by seeing to employees’ needs for warm clothing, nutrition, breaks, and shelter, and by providing training in cold safety.
  • Employers can treat cold-related illnesses by warming the worker up and providing calories.

Employers are responsible for protecting employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries. If these do occur, employers should be prepared to respond to them quickly.

Things employers can do to protect employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries:

  • Recognize the weather conditions that could cause cold-related illnesses and injuries.
  • Teach employees about the signs and symptoms of cold-related illnesses/injuries and how they can help themselves or their coworkers.
  • Require that employees wear proper clothing for cold, wet, and windy conditions.
    • Allow employees to layer their clothing so they can adjust to changing temperatures.
    • Encourage them to wear a hat and gloves in addition to underwear that will keep water away from their skin (polypropylene).
  • Make snacks and energy drinks available to provide employees with the energy needed to keep their muscles warm and avoid exhaustion or fatigue.
  • Require that employees use the buddy system when working in cold conditions.
  • Remind employees to drink warm, sweet beverages (sugar water, sports-type drinks) and avoid drinks with caffeine (coffee, tea, or hot chocolate).
  • Allow employees to take frequent short breaks in warm, dry shelters to warm up.
  • Require that employees only work during the warmest part of the day.

Things employers can do to treat frostbite and other cold-related illnesses:

  • Move the person to a warm and dry area; do not leave the person alone.
  • Remove wet or tight clothes that may cut off blood flow to the affected area. Replace with warm, dry clothing or wrap in blankets.
  • Avoid rubbing a frostbitten area, which can cause damage to the skin and tissue.
  • Place the frostbitten area in lukewarm water (105 degrees F) and monitor the temperature to slowly warm the tissue. Warming takes from 25 to 40 minutes.
  • When normal feeling, movement, and skin color return, dry and wrap the affected area. Seek medical attention.
  • Have the person drink warm, sweet beverages, such as sugar water and sports drinks, and avoid drinks with caffeine in them.

Heat exposure

  • Heat stress refers to heat-related illnesses that occur when the body can’t maintain a normal temperature.
  • All employers with employees exposed to hot work environments must take steps to mitigate heat stress, as a hazard covered under the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act of 1970.

Heat stress can occur in both indoor and outdoor work settings. Indoor operations involving high air temperatures, radiant heat sources, heavy lifting and other strenuous physical activities, and direct physical contact with hot objects increase the potential for heat stress. Outdoor work during the hot summer months, especially activities that require workers to wear semipermeable or impermeable protective clothing, also increases the likelihood of heat stress.

What’s the standard number?

Heat exposure is covered under the Occupational Safety & Health (OSH) Act of 1970, Section 5(a)(1), known as the General Duty Clause. This requires employers to provide all of their employees with work and a workplace that are free from recognized hazards that are likely to cause death or serious harm.

Who must comply?

All employers with employees exposed to hot work environments must take steps to mitigate heat-related illness due to heat stress. The term heat stress is used to describe a number of heat-related illnesses that occur when the body is not able to maintain a normal temperature. Heat-related disorders include heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat rashes.

Key definitions

  • Acclimatization means exposing the employee to the hot environment for progressively longer periods to allow the body to adapt.
  • Administrative controls means reducing specific job hazards through changes in work procedures (e.g., written safety policies, schedule changes, training, and supervision).
  • Conduction means the heat exchange between the heat and a surface.
  • Convection means the exchange between the skin surface and the surrounding air.
  • Engineering controls means reducing or eliminating specific job hazards through the use of or substitution of machinery or equipment (e.g., ventilation, air cooling, fans, shielding, and insulation).
  • Fluid replacement means providing cool water to employees and encouraging them to drink small amounts frequently.

What are the requirements for employers?

  • Employers must take appropriate measures to protect both indoor and outdoor workers from heat stress.
  • These measures include engineering controls such as fans and administrative controls such as training and water breaks.
  • Employers can also monitor employees’ heat stress by taking their pulse and/or oral temperature, and comparing their before- and after-work weights to measure water loss.

Employers are responsible for providing the necessary equipment, supplies, conditions, and information to protect their workers from heat stress.

Protecting indoor workers from heat stress

  • Engineering controls include:
    • Cooling the air with fans,
    • Shielding,
    • Proper ventilation,
    • Insulation,
    • Air conditioning, and
    • Power assists and other ways of reducing physical demands.
  • Administrative controls and work practices include:
    • Training employees to avoid heat stress,
    • Educating them on the dangers of using alcohol and drugs (even over-the-counter medications), and
    • Acclimatizing them to the heat.

Protecting outdoor workers from heat stress

Outdoor workers are at an increased risk of experiencing heat-related illnesses during the hot summer months, when sweating alone may not be enough to cool the body. To prevent heat-related illnesses and fatalities, employers should remind employees to:

  • Drink water every 15 minutes, even if they are not thirsty.
  • Rest in the shade to cool down.
  • Wear a hat and light-colored clothing.
  • Learn the signs of heat illness and what to do in an emergency.
  • Keep an eye on fellow workers.
  • Take it easy during the first days of work in the heat to acclimatize.

Monitoring workers for signs of heat stress

To monitor workers, employers can measure:

  • Heart rate. As early as possible in the rest period, the radial pulse can be counted during a 30-second period.
    • If the heart rate exceeds 110 beats per minute at the beginning of the rest period, the next work cycle should be shortened by one-third, with no change to the length of the rest period.
    • If the heart rate still exceeds 110 beats per minute at the next rest period, the work cycle should be shortened by one-third.
  • Oral temperature. A clinical thermometer or similar device can be used to measure the oral temperature (3 minutes under the tongue) at the end of the work period, before drinking.
    • If oral temperature exceeds 99.6 degrees F (37.6 degrees C), the next work cycle should be shortened by one-third, with no change to the length of the rest period.
    • If oral temperature still exceeds 99.6 degrees F (37.6 degrees C) at the beginning of the next rest period, the work cycle should be shortened by one-third.
    • Workers should not be permitted to wear semi-permeable or impermeable garments if their oral temperature exceeds 100.6 degrees F (38.1 degrees C).
  • Body water loss. At the beginning and end of each workday, weight can be measured on a scale accurate to 0.25 pounds to see if enough fluids are being taken to prevent dehydration.
    • Weights should be taken while the employee wears similar clothing or, ideally, no clothing.
    • The body water loss should not exceed 1.5 percent total body weight loss in a workday.

Training

Although the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) doesn’t require training specific to heat stress by standard, employers must teach workers to recognize the signs of heat stress in themselves and their coworkers if they are exposed to extreme heat on the job.

Training should cover the following types of heat-related conditions:

  • Heat stroke. This is a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body is no longer able to regulate temperature through sweating.
    • Symptoms include confusion; loss of consciousness; convulsions; hot, dry skin; and extremely high body temperature.
    • First aid includes calling 911; moving the affected worker to a cool, dry area; and aggressively attempting to lower body temperature by removing outer clothing and wetting the skin. The worker needs immediate medical attention and must not be left unattended.
  • Heat exhaustion. This condition requires prompt first-aid treatment to prevent it from becoming more serious.
    • Symptoms include clammy skin, nausea, headache, dizziness, weakness, thirst, muscle cramps, and fainting.
    • First aid treatment includes moving the employee to a cooler area, removing outer clothing, and giving cool fluids to drink.
  • Heat cramps. These are painful muscle cramps that occur after sweating and inadequate fluid intake.
    • Symptoms are involuntary muscle spasms and excessive sweating.
    • First aid includes moving the employee to a cool area and providing fluids to drink, especially electrolyte-replacing liquids such as sports drinks. The affected employee should gently stretch the cramped muscle(s).
  • Heat fatigue. This occurs when workers have had a chance to adapt to the hot working environment.
    • Symptoms include trouble concentrating and working.
    • First aid involves moving the worker to a cooler area and encouraging rest.
  • Heat rash. This, also known as prickly heat, appears as itchy red bumps on the skin.
    • First aid includes rinsing the affected area with cool water and thoroughly drying the skin.

Training should also give workers the knowledge to do the following:

  • Protect and acclimatize new workers,
  • Drink enough fluids,
  • Balance work with sufficient rest breaks in a cooler area,
  • Recognize personal and environmental risk factors and when to use extra caution about heat,
  • Provide immediate first aid when needed, and
  • Contact emergency medical services.

Employee risk

  • Heat-related illnesses can be serious hazards for employees and include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat rash, and heat stroke.
  • Factors that increase employees’ risk for heat-related illnesses include environmental factors such as direct sunlight, lack of ventilation, and wearing heavy clothing or PPE, as well as health factors such as age, pregnancy, and chronic illness.

Heat-related illness is a serious hazard employees face while working in hot environments without protection from the elements. In addition, environmental and health factors also increase the employee risk of experiencing heat stress.

Heat-related illness

  • Fatigue: Occurs more quickly during exertion in hot conditions because of the body’s natural cooling methods. When the body circulates more blood to the upper layers of the skin in order to release body heat to the environment, relatively less blood is available to provide active muscles, the brain, and other internal organs with the energy they need for peak performance, thereby causing fatigue.
  • Heat cramps: Occur in tired muscles when the worker sweats profusely and drinks large quantities of water.
  • Heat exhaustion: Can result when a person has lost large amounts of fluid by sweating.
  • Heat rash: Occurs as a result of the body’s natural cooling mechanisms. Body heat is released through sweating. This cooling action is most effective if the sweat is able to evaporate into a dry environment. When the air is humid, the skin can remain moist from sweat. If sweat ducts become plugged, a skin inflammation in the form of a rash can develop.
  • Heat stroke: Occurs when the body’s temperature regulatory system fails and sweating has become inadequate to remove excess body heat.
  • Sunburn: Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can produce sunburn. Symptoms include red, sensitive, inflamed skin and even blisters.
    • To relieve the pain, soak sunburns in cold water, dry the area, apply ointment, and cover. Severe sunburn requires medical treatment. The only way to prevent sunburn is to avoid sun exposure (by wearing a hat, long sleeves, and sunscreen).

Environmental risk factors

These environmental factors increase the employee risk of heat-related illness:

  • High temperatures and humidity
  • Exposure to indoor sources of heat (ovens, furnaces)
  • Direct sunlight
  • Heavy clothing
  • Limited airflow or air movement
  • Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE)
  • Heavy workload

Health risk factors

These factors influence the employee risk of heat-related illness:

  • Level of physical fitness
  • Opportunity to acclimate to conditions
  • Age
  • Dehydration
  • Obesity
  • Alcohol or drug use
  • Infection or illness
  • Sunburn
  • Certain medications
  • Pregnancy
  • Previous heat-related illness
  • Chronic disease

Solutions

  • Solutions to help control employees’ heat exposure include wearing wet clothing or specialized PPE with cooling mechanisms, resting, drinking fluids, and pacing or toning down the work.

Sometimes workers are required to wear heavy clothing to protect against contact with hot materials or surfaces. Or they must wear impermeable chemical protective clothing, which can contribute to their exposure to heat.

There are specialized types of personal protective equipment (PPE) that can be worn under other types of protective clothing to cool workers. Ice vests have many pockets where ice packets can be inserted. Water-cooled garments have a battery-driven pump that circulates coolant through chambers in the clothing. Another system uses an air supply to circulate air around workers in impermeable suits.

Work practices to help control heat hazards

A more common technique that might be considered PPE is to wear wet clothing, headbands, or bandanas. This could also be considered a type of work practice control.

Other work practices that help control exposure to the heat include:

  • Using intermittent rest periods to recover from the heat.
  • Drinking about 5 to 7 ounces of fluids every 15 to 20 minutes to replenish body fluids.
  • Using relief workers.
  • Using the buddy system (working in pairs) when working in hot conditions.
  • Pacing the work, or reducing the physical demands of the work.
  • Providing cool recovery or shaded rest areas.
  • Scheduling work for cooler times of the day or when heat-producing equipment isn’t being operated.
  • Wearing light, loose-fitting, breathable (e.g., cotton) clothing.

What are the requirements for employers?

  • Employers must take appropriate measures to protect both indoor and outdoor workers from heat stress.
  • These measures include engineering controls such as fans and administrative controls such as training and water breaks.
  • Employers can also monitor employees’ heat stress by taking their pulse and/or oral temperature, and comparing their before- and after-work weights to measure water loss.

Employers are responsible for providing the necessary equipment, supplies, conditions, and information to protect their workers from heat stress.

Protecting indoor workers from heat stress

  • Engineering controls include:
    • Cooling the air with fans,
    • Shielding,
    • Proper ventilation,
    • Insulation,
    • Air conditioning, and
    • Power assists and other ways of reducing physical demands.
  • Administrative controls and work practices include:
    • Training employees to avoid heat stress,
    • Educating them on the dangers of using alcohol and drugs (even over-the-counter medications), and
    • Acclimatizing them to the heat.

Protecting outdoor workers from heat stress

Outdoor workers are at an increased risk of experiencing heat-related illnesses during the hot summer months, when sweating alone may not be enough to cool the body. To prevent heat-related illnesses and fatalities, employers should remind employees to:

  • Drink water every 15 minutes, even if they are not thirsty.
  • Rest in the shade to cool down.
  • Wear a hat and light-colored clothing.
  • Learn the signs of heat illness and what to do in an emergency.
  • Keep an eye on fellow workers.
  • Take it easy during the first days of work in the heat to acclimatize.

Monitoring workers for signs of heat stress

To monitor workers, employers can measure:

  • Heart rate. As early as possible in the rest period, the radial pulse can be counted during a 30-second period.
    • If the heart rate exceeds 110 beats per minute at the beginning of the rest period, the next work cycle should be shortened by one-third, with no change to the length of the rest period.
    • If the heart rate still exceeds 110 beats per minute at the next rest period, the work cycle should be shortened by one-third.
  • Oral temperature. A clinical thermometer or similar device can be used to measure the oral temperature (3 minutes under the tongue) at the end of the work period, before drinking.
    • If oral temperature exceeds 99.6 degrees F (37.6 degrees C), the next work cycle should be shortened by one-third, with no change to the length of the rest period.
    • If oral temperature still exceeds 99.6 degrees F (37.6 degrees C) at the beginning of the next rest period, the work cycle should be shortened by one-third.
    • Workers should not be permitted to wear semi-permeable or impermeable garments if their oral temperature exceeds 100.6 degrees F (38.1 degrees C).
  • Body water loss. At the beginning and end of each workday, weight can be measured on a scale accurate to 0.25 pounds to see if enough fluids are being taken to prevent dehydration.
    • Weights should be taken while the employee wears similar clothing or, ideally, no clothing.
    • The body water loss should not exceed 1.5 percent total body weight loss in a workday.

Training

Although the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) doesn’t require training specific to heat stress by standard, employers must teach workers to recognize the signs of heat stress in themselves and their coworkers if they are exposed to extreme heat on the job.

Training should cover the following types of heat-related conditions:

  • Heat stroke. This is a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body is no longer able to regulate temperature through sweating.
    • Symptoms include confusion; loss of consciousness; convulsions; hot, dry skin; and extremely high body temperature.
    • First aid includes calling 911; moving the affected worker to a cool, dry area; and aggressively attempting to lower body temperature by removing outer clothing and wetting the skin. The worker needs immediate medical attention and must not be left unattended.
  • Heat exhaustion. This condition requires prompt first-aid treatment to prevent it from becoming more serious.
    • Symptoms include clammy skin, nausea, headache, dizziness, weakness, thirst, muscle cramps, and fainting.
    • First aid treatment includes moving the employee to a cooler area, removing outer clothing, and giving cool fluids to drink.
  • Heat cramps. These are painful muscle cramps that occur after sweating and inadequate fluid intake.
    • Symptoms are involuntary muscle spasms and excessive sweating.
    • First aid includes moving the employee to a cool area and providing fluids to drink, especially electrolyte-replacing liquids such as sports drinks. The affected employee should gently stretch the cramped muscle(s).
  • Heat fatigue. This occurs when workers have had a chance to adapt to the hot working environment.
    • Symptoms include trouble concentrating and working.
    • First aid involves moving the worker to a cooler area and encouraging rest.
  • Heat rash. This, also known as prickly heat, appears as itchy red bumps on the skin.
    • First aid includes rinsing the affected area with cool water and thoroughly drying the skin.

Training should also give workers the knowledge to do the following:

  • Protect and acclimatize new workers,
  • Drink enough fluids,
  • Balance work with sufficient rest breaks in a cooler area,
  • Recognize personal and environmental risk factors and when to use extra caution about heat,
  • Provide immediate first aid when needed, and
  • Contact emergency medical services.

Employee risk

  • Heat-related illnesses can be serious hazards for employees and include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat rash, and heat stroke.
  • Factors that increase employees’ risk for heat-related illnesses include environmental factors such as direct sunlight, lack of ventilation, and wearing heavy clothing or PPE, as well as health factors such as age, pregnancy, and chronic illness.

Heat-related illness is a serious hazard employees face while working in hot environments without protection from the elements. In addition, environmental and health factors also increase the employee risk of experiencing heat stress.

Heat-related illness

  • Fatigue: Occurs more quickly during exertion in hot conditions because of the body’s natural cooling methods. When the body circulates more blood to the upper layers of the skin in order to release body heat to the environment, relatively less blood is available to provide active muscles, the brain, and other internal organs with the energy they need for peak performance, thereby causing fatigue.
  • Heat cramps: Occur in tired muscles when the worker sweats profusely and drinks large quantities of water.
  • Heat exhaustion: Can result when a person has lost large amounts of fluid by sweating.
  • Heat rash: Occurs as a result of the body’s natural cooling mechanisms. Body heat is released through sweating. This cooling action is most effective if the sweat is able to evaporate into a dry environment. When the air is humid, the skin can remain moist from sweat. If sweat ducts become plugged, a skin inflammation in the form of a rash can develop.
  • Heat stroke: Occurs when the body’s temperature regulatory system fails and sweating has become inadequate to remove excess body heat.
  • Sunburn: Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can produce sunburn. Symptoms include red, sensitive, inflamed skin and even blisters.
    • To relieve the pain, soak sunburns in cold water, dry the area, apply ointment, and cover. Severe sunburn requires medical treatment. The only way to prevent sunburn is to avoid sun exposure (by wearing a hat, long sleeves, and sunscreen).

Environmental risk factors

These environmental factors increase the employee risk of heat-related illness:

  • High temperatures and humidity
  • Exposure to indoor sources of heat (ovens, furnaces)
  • Direct sunlight
  • Heavy clothing
  • Limited airflow or air movement
  • Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE)
  • Heavy workload

Health risk factors

These factors influence the employee risk of heat-related illness:

  • Level of physical fitness
  • Opportunity to acclimate to conditions
  • Age
  • Dehydration
  • Obesity
  • Alcohol or drug use
  • Infection or illness
  • Sunburn
  • Certain medications
  • Pregnancy
  • Previous heat-related illness
  • Chronic disease

Solutions

  • Solutions to help control employees’ heat exposure include wearing wet clothing or specialized PPE with cooling mechanisms, resting, drinking fluids, and pacing or toning down the work.

Sometimes workers are required to wear heavy clothing to protect against contact with hot materials or surfaces. Or they must wear impermeable chemical protective clothing, which can contribute to their exposure to heat.

There are specialized types of personal protective equipment (PPE) that can be worn under other types of protective clothing to cool workers. Ice vests have many pockets where ice packets can be inserted. Water-cooled garments have a battery-driven pump that circulates coolant through chambers in the clothing. Another system uses an air supply to circulate air around workers in impermeable suits.

Work practices to help control heat hazards

A more common technique that might be considered PPE is to wear wet clothing, headbands, or bandanas. This could also be considered a type of work practice control.

Other work practices that help control exposure to the heat include:

  • Using intermittent rest periods to recover from the heat.
  • Drinking about 5 to 7 ounces of fluids every 15 to 20 minutes to replenish body fluids.
  • Using relief workers.
  • Using the buddy system (working in pairs) when working in hot conditions.
  • Pacing the work, or reducing the physical demands of the work.
  • Providing cool recovery or shaded rest areas.
  • Scheduling work for cooler times of the day or when heat-producing equipment isn’t being operated.
  • Wearing light, loose-fitting, breathable (e.g., cotton) clothing.

Cold exposure

  • Workers who work in a cold environment are at risk of cold stress, especially if they spend extended periods there.
  • All employers with employees exposed to cold work environments must take steps to mitigate cold stress, as a hazard covered under the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act of 1970.

Anyone working in a cold environment may be at risk of cold stress. Some workers may be required to work outdoors in cold environments and for extended periods — for example, snow cleanup crews, sanitation workers, police officers and emergency response and recovery personnel (like firefighters), and emergency medical technicians. Cold stress can be encountered in these types of work environments.

What constitutes extreme cold and its effects can vary across different areas of the country. In regions that are not used to winter weather, near-freezing temperatures are considered “extreme cold.” A cold environment forces the body to work harder to maintain its temperature. Whenever temperatures drop below normal and wind speed increases, heat can leave the body more rapidly.

What’s the standard number?

Cold exposure is covered under the Occupational Safety & Health (OSH) Act of 1970, Section 5(a)(1), known as the General Duty Clause. This requires employers to provide all of their employees with work and a workplace that are free from recognized hazards that are likely to cause death or serious harm.

Who must comply?

Although the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) does not have a specific standard that covers working in cold environments, employers have a responsibility to provide workers with employment and a workplace that are free from recognized hazards, including cold stress, that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to them (Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970). Employers should, therefore, train workers on the hazards of the job and safety measures to use, such as engineering controls and safe work practices, that will protect workers’ safety and health.

Key definitions

  • Cold stress occurs by driving down the skin temperature and eventually the internal body temperature (core temperature). This may lead to serious health problems and may cause tissue damage and possibly death.
  • The cold stress equation is defined by OSHA as follows: low temperatures + wind speed + wetness = injuries and illness.
  • Frostbite is an injury to the body that is caused by freezing of the skin and underlying tissues. The lower the temperature, the more quickly frostbite will occur. Frostbite typically affects the extremities, particularly the feet and hands. Amputation may be required in severe cases.
  • Hypothermia occurs when body heat is lost faster than it can be replaced and the normal body temperature (98.6 degrees F) drops to less than 95 degrees F. Hypothermia is most likely at very cold temperatures, but it can occur even at cool temperatures (above 40 degrees F) if a person becomes chilled from rain, sweat, or submersion in cold water.
  • Trench foot or immersion foot is caused by prolonged exposure to wet and cold temperatures. It can occur at temperatures as high as 60 degrees F if the feet are constantly wet. Non-freezing injury occurs because wet feet lose heat 25 times faster than dry feet. To prevent heat loss, the body constricts the blood vessels to shut down circulation in the feet. The skin tissue begins to die because of a lack of oxygen and nutrients and due to the buildup of toxic products.
  • Wind chill is the temperature the body feels when air temperature and wind speed are combined. For example, when the air temperature is 40 degrees F and the wind speed is 35 mph, the effect on the exposed skin is as if the air temperature was 28 degrees F.

What are the requirements for employers?

  • Employers are required to provide engineering controls, use safe work practices, and give workers frequent breaks in warm areas.
  • Employers must also train workers in the practices and knowledge they need to stay safe in the cold.

Employers should:

  • Provide engineering controls. For example, radiant heaters may be used to warm workers in outdoor security stations. If possible, shield work areas from drafts or wind to reduce wind chill.
  • Use safe work practices. It is easy to become dehydrated in cold weather. Employers can provide plenty of warm sweetened liquids to workers. If possible, employers can schedule heavy work during the warmer part of the day. Employers can assign workers to tasks in pairs (buddy system), so that they can monitor each other for signs of cold stress. Workers can be allowed to interrupt their work, if they are extremely uncomfortable.
  • Give workers frequent breaks in warm areas. Acclimatize new workers and those returning after time away from work, by gradually increasing their workload, and allowing more frequent breaks in warm areas, as they build up a tolerance for working in the cold environment.

Training

Employers are also responsible for training workers in preventing, recognizing, and responding to cold stress. At a minimum, this training should include:

  • Preventing cold-related injuries and illnesses;
  • Dressing for cold, wet, and windy conditions;
  • Recognizing the symptoms of cold stress;
  • Monitoring oneself and others for symptoms;
  • Performing first aid and calling for medical assistance; and
  • Recognizing and staying safe from other potential winter-related hazards, such as icy surfaces and downed power lines.

Employee risk

  • The biggest risks employees face from cold are frostbite and hypothermia.
  • Cold risks can be amplified by aspects of employee health such as preexisting conditions, age, and certain medications.

Serious cold-related illnesses and injuries may occur and permanent tissue damage and death may result if employees stay in cold environments for too long. Cold-related illnesses can slowly overcome an employee who has been chilled by low temperatures, brisk winds, or wet clothing. The biggest risks employees face are frostbite and hypothermia. In addition, employee health can increase chances of cold stress while on the job.

Frostbite

Frostbite usually affects the fingers, hands, toes, feet, ears, and nose.

What can happen to the body?

  • Freezing in deep layers of skin and tissue;
  • Pale, waxy-white skin color; and
  • Skin becoming hard and numb.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia occurs when the normal body temperature (98.6 degrees F) drops to or below 95 degrees F.

What can happen to the body?

  • Fatigue or drowsiness;
  • Uncontrolled shivering;
  • Cool, bluish skin;
  • Slurred speech;
  • Clumsy movements; and
  • Irritable, irrational, or confused behavior.

The role of employee health

Employees are at an increased risk to cold stress if they:

  • Have predisposing health conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and hypertension;
  • Are in poor physical condition, have a poor diet, or are older; or
  • Take certain medications (some medications can negatively affect employees while they work in cold environments).

Solutions

  • Employers can protect employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries by seeing to employees’ needs for warm clothing, nutrition, breaks, and shelter, and by providing training in cold safety.
  • Employers can treat cold-related illnesses by warming the worker up and providing calories.

Employers are responsible for protecting employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries. If these do occur, employers should be prepared to respond to them quickly.

Things employers can do to protect employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries:

  • Recognize the weather conditions that could cause cold-related illnesses and injuries.
  • Teach employees about the signs and symptoms of cold-related illnesses/injuries and how they can help themselves or their coworkers.
  • Require that employees wear proper clothing for cold, wet, and windy conditions.
    • Allow employees to layer their clothing so they can adjust to changing temperatures.
    • Encourage them to wear a hat and gloves in addition to underwear that will keep water away from their skin (polypropylene).
  • Make snacks and energy drinks available to provide employees with the energy needed to keep their muscles warm and avoid exhaustion or fatigue.
  • Require that employees use the buddy system when working in cold conditions.
  • Remind employees to drink warm, sweet beverages (sugar water, sports-type drinks) and avoid drinks with caffeine (coffee, tea, or hot chocolate).
  • Allow employees to take frequent short breaks in warm, dry shelters to warm up.
  • Require that employees only work during the warmest part of the day.

Things employers can do to treat frostbite and other cold-related illnesses:

  • Move the person to a warm and dry area; do not leave the person alone.
  • Remove wet or tight clothes that may cut off blood flow to the affected area. Replace with warm, dry clothing or wrap in blankets.
  • Avoid rubbing a frostbitten area, which can cause damage to the skin and tissue.
  • Place the frostbitten area in lukewarm water (105 degrees F) and monitor the temperature to slowly warm the tissue. Warming takes from 25 to 40 minutes.
  • When normal feeling, movement, and skin color return, dry and wrap the affected area. Seek medical attention.
  • Have the person drink warm, sweet beverages, such as sugar water and sports drinks, and avoid drinks with caffeine in them.

What are the requirements for employers?

  • Employers are required to provide engineering controls, use safe work practices, and give workers frequent breaks in warm areas.
  • Employers must also train workers in the practices and knowledge they need to stay safe in the cold.

Employers should:

  • Provide engineering controls. For example, radiant heaters may be used to warm workers in outdoor security stations. If possible, shield work areas from drafts or wind to reduce wind chill.
  • Use safe work practices. It is easy to become dehydrated in cold weather. Employers can provide plenty of warm sweetened liquids to workers. If possible, employers can schedule heavy work during the warmer part of the day. Employers can assign workers to tasks in pairs (buddy system), so that they can monitor each other for signs of cold stress. Workers can be allowed to interrupt their work, if they are extremely uncomfortable.
  • Give workers frequent breaks in warm areas. Acclimatize new workers and those returning after time away from work, by gradually increasing their workload, and allowing more frequent breaks in warm areas, as they build up a tolerance for working in the cold environment.

Training

Employers are also responsible for training workers in preventing, recognizing, and responding to cold stress. At a minimum, this training should include:

  • Preventing cold-related injuries and illnesses;
  • Dressing for cold, wet, and windy conditions;
  • Recognizing the symptoms of cold stress;
  • Monitoring oneself and others for symptoms;
  • Performing first aid and calling for medical assistance; and
  • Recognizing and staying safe from other potential winter-related hazards, such as icy surfaces and downed power lines.

Employee risk

  • The biggest risks employees face from cold are frostbite and hypothermia.
  • Cold risks can be amplified by aspects of employee health such as preexisting conditions, age, and certain medications.

Serious cold-related illnesses and injuries may occur and permanent tissue damage and death may result if employees stay in cold environments for too long. Cold-related illnesses can slowly overcome an employee who has been chilled by low temperatures, brisk winds, or wet clothing. The biggest risks employees face are frostbite and hypothermia. In addition, employee health can increase chances of cold stress while on the job.

Frostbite

Frostbite usually affects the fingers, hands, toes, feet, ears, and nose.

What can happen to the body?

  • Freezing in deep layers of skin and tissue;
  • Pale, waxy-white skin color; and
  • Skin becoming hard and numb.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia occurs when the normal body temperature (98.6 degrees F) drops to or below 95 degrees F.

What can happen to the body?

  • Fatigue or drowsiness;
  • Uncontrolled shivering;
  • Cool, bluish skin;
  • Slurred speech;
  • Clumsy movements; and
  • Irritable, irrational, or confused behavior.

The role of employee health

Employees are at an increased risk to cold stress if they:

  • Have predisposing health conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and hypertension;
  • Are in poor physical condition, have a poor diet, or are older; or
  • Take certain medications (some medications can negatively affect employees while they work in cold environments).

Solutions

  • Employers can protect employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries by seeing to employees’ needs for warm clothing, nutrition, breaks, and shelter, and by providing training in cold safety.
  • Employers can treat cold-related illnesses by warming the worker up and providing calories.

Employers are responsible for protecting employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries. If these do occur, employers should be prepared to respond to them quickly.

Things employers can do to protect employees from cold-related illnesses and injuries:

  • Recognize the weather conditions that could cause cold-related illnesses and injuries.
  • Teach employees about the signs and symptoms of cold-related illnesses/injuries and how they can help themselves or their coworkers.
  • Require that employees wear proper clothing for cold, wet, and windy conditions.
    • Allow employees to layer their clothing so they can adjust to changing temperatures.
    • Encourage them to wear a hat and gloves in addition to underwear that will keep water away from their skin (polypropylene).
  • Make snacks and energy drinks available to provide employees with the energy needed to keep their muscles warm and avoid exhaustion or fatigue.
  • Require that employees use the buddy system when working in cold conditions.
  • Remind employees to drink warm, sweet beverages (sugar water, sports-type drinks) and avoid drinks with caffeine (coffee, tea, or hot chocolate).
  • Allow employees to take frequent short breaks in warm, dry shelters to warm up.
  • Require that employees only work during the warmest part of the day.

Things employers can do to treat frostbite and other cold-related illnesses:

  • Move the person to a warm and dry area; do not leave the person alone.
  • Remove wet or tight clothes that may cut off blood flow to the affected area. Replace with warm, dry clothing or wrap in blankets.
  • Avoid rubbing a frostbitten area, which can cause damage to the skin and tissue.
  • Place the frostbitten area in lukewarm water (105 degrees F) and monitor the temperature to slowly warm the tissue. Warming takes from 25 to 40 minutes.
  • When normal feeling, movement, and skin color return, dry and wrap the affected area. Seek medical attention.
  • Have the person drink warm, sweet beverages, such as sugar water and sports drinks, and avoid drinks with caffeine in them.
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