Handling and storing materials involve diverse operations such as hoisting tons of steel with a crane; driving a truck loaded with concrete blocks; carrying bags or materials manually; and stacking palletized bricks or other materials such as drums, barrels, kegs, and lumber.

The efficient handling and storing of materials are vital to industry. In addition to raw materials, these operations provide a continuous flow of parts and assemblies through the workplace and ensure that materials are available when needed. Unfortunately, the improper handling and storing of materials often result in costly injuries.

• Steel storage racks can pose hazards if not installed and used properly.

Steel storage racks are a staple in most industrial or warehousing workplaces. While they are invaluable at keeping materials and product organized and retrievable, these space-savers can pose hazards if not designed for the application, installed and used properly, inspected regularly, and maintained.

There are two primary federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations that are applicable to storage racks:

• 1910.176(b), which essentially says that stored items must be secured. It doesn’t specifically address racking; rather, it’s a general stacking requirement, to keep materials from falling over or collapsing.
• 1910.159, which deals with the height of any storage to fire sprinklers (that is, there must be an 18-inch minimum clearance between the materials and the sprinklers).

For most racking issues, OSHA uses the General Duty Clause of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act to hold employers responsible for protecting workers from serious and recognized hazards, often referencing the equipment manufacturer’s installation and maintenance instructions and/or the requirements in the American National Standards Institute’s ANSI/RMI MH16.1 – Specification for the Design, Testing and Utilization of Industrial Steel Storage Racks.

• Storage racks must be properly anchored to the floor, with permissible unit loads posted.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recommends that the bottom of all columns be furnished with column base plates and be anchored to the floor with anchor bolts capable of resisting the forces caused by the loads on the rack.

OSHA recommends that load ratings be present that provide, at a minimum, the maximum permissible unit load and/or maximum uniformly distributed load per level, the average unit load, and maximum total load per bay.

• Storage racks should be inspected regularly, with sufficient clearance around them, and should not be damaged, out of plumb, or overloaded.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recommends that the employer develop a maintenance and inspection program for storage racks, which includes keeping aisles clear and providing sufficient clearance for material handling equipment; ensuring racks are properly aligned, plum, and level, per manufacturer’s instructions; and encouraging employees to promptly report any damage to racks.

The following are some common safety issues that safety professionals/employers need to address:

• Layout designs/drawings and calculations should be available.
• Anchoring should be adequate and in good shape.
• There should be no structural damage.
• Racks should not be out of plumb — a maximum of one-half inch per 10 feet high for loaded rack (ANSI MH 16.1).
• There should not be excessive beam deflection — length divided by 180 (ANSI MH 16.1).
• Bumpers, guards, and reinforcements should be in place as needed.
• Material handling operators should be trained.
• Load ratings should be present and legible.
• Connections should be in place and adequate.
• Welds should be in good shape.
• Decking should be adequate.
• There should be no unapproved or mismatched components or modifications.

• Stored materials must not create hazards for workers.
• Bound materials should be on racks and secured by stacking, blocking or interlocking.

Stored materials must not create a hazard for employees. Employers should make workers aware of such factors as the materials’ height and weight, how accessible the stored materials are to the user, and the condition of the containers where the materials are being stored when stacking and piling materials. To prevent creating hazards when storing materials, employers must do the following:

• Keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that cause tripping, fires, or explosions, or that may harbor rats and other pests;
• Place stored materials inside buildings that are under construction and at least 6 feet from hoist ways, or inside floor openings and at least 10 feet away from exterior walls;
• Separate noncompatible material; and
• Equip employees who work on stored grain in silos, hoppers, or tanks, with lifelines and safety belts.

In addition, workers should consider placing bound material on racks, and secure it by stacking, blocking, or interlocking to prevent it from sliding, falling, or collapsing.

• Falling materials and collapsing loads can cause injuries or death to workers.

Injuries can occur when items are not stacked properly, whether palletized, on racking, or stacked in some other manner. Falling materials and collapsing loads can crush or pin workers, causing injuries or death.

Workers should stack materials no higher than specified limits for the material. Stacks should be stable and self-supporting.

Stacking should be done in such a manner that prevents rolling or shifting of the material being stored.

To help prevent injuries when stacking materials, workers should do the following:

• Stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually, and no more than 20 feet high if using a forklift;
• Remove all nails from used lumber before stacking;
• Stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracing;
• Ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting;
• Do not store pipes and bars in racks that face main aisles, to avoid creating a hazard to passersby when removing supplies;
• Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure; and
• Stack bagged material by stepping back the layers and cross keying the bags at least every 10 layers (to remove bags from the stack, start from the top row first).

During materials stacking activities, workers should also do the following:

• Store baled paper and rags inside a building no closer than 18 inches to the walls, partitions, or sprinkler heads;
• Band boxed materials or secure them with crossties or shrink plastic fiber;
• Stack drums, barrels, and kegs symmetrically;
• Block the bottom tiers of drums, barrels, and kegs to keep them from rolling if stored on their sides;
• Place planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between each tier of drums, barrels, and kegs to make a firm, flat, stacking surface when stacking on end;
• Chock the bottom tier of drums, barrels, and kegs on each side to prevent shifting in either direction when stacking two or more tiers high; and
• Stack and block poles as well as structural steel, bar stock, and other cylindrical materials to prevent spreading or tilting (unless they are in racks).

In addition, workers should do the following:

• For quick reference, paint walls or posts with stripes to indicate maximum stacking heights;
• Observe height limitations when stacking materials;
• Consider the need for availability of the material; and
• Stack loose bricks no more than 7 feet high. (When these stacks reach a height of 4 feet, taper them back 2 inches for every foot of height above the 4-foot level. When masonry blocks are stacked higher than 6 feet, taper the stacks back one-half block for each tier above the 6-foot level.)

• OSHA does not regulate specific heights for stacking materials, although 1910.176(b) notes that storage of material shall not create a hazard.
• OSHA does specify a clearance of 18 inches between materials and any fire sprinklers. Local fire codes may have additional requirements.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) does not have a specific regulation on height of materials to be stacked. In terms of general hazards from material storage, OSHA simply says that:

• 1910.176(b) — Secure storage. Storage of material shall not create a hazard. Bags, containers, bundles, etc., stored in tiers shall be stacked, blocked, interlocked and limited in height so that they are stable and secure against sliding or collapse.

OSHA does have a requirement in 1910.159(c)(10) regarding sprinkler clearance when stacking items: “The minimum vertical clearance between sprinklers and material below shall be 18 inches (45.7 cm).” Under the above, OSHA leaves it to the employer to determine a correct height based on a hazard assessment of the storage materials/arrangement.

Local fire codes may also have requirements based on type of sprinklers and materials being stored. For example, large stacks of empty pallets create the potential for fast-developing fire and intense heat released from the pallet stack; therefore, some fire codes address that issue.

• Slings are often used when moving large, bulky, or heavy loads of materials.

Slings are often used along with powered industrial trucks, cranes, hoists, and derricks when moving materials, especially large, bulky, or heavy loads. If the slings are not rigged, arranged, and maintained, serious injuries or fatalities can occur from falling loads.

Slings must be inspected regularly and defected slings taken out of service.

In addition, workers should be trained to use the slings, including in proper rigging techniques for the equipment they will be using slings with.

There are several varieties of slings, including: alloy steel chain, wire rope, metal mesh, natural fiber rope, synthetic fiber rope, synthetic web, and synthetic round slings. Each type of sling has its advantages and disadvantages.

• Employers must designate a competent person to inspect any slings before and during use.

Employers must designate a competent person to conduct inspections of slings before and during use, especially when service conditions warrant. In addition, they must ensure that workers observe the following precautions when working with slings:

• Immediately remove damaged or defective slings from service.
• Do not shorten slings with knots, bolts, or other makeshift devices.
• Do not kink sling legs.
• Do not load slings beyond their rated capacity.
• Keep suspended loads clear of all obstructions.
• Remain clear of loads about to be lifted and suspended.
• Do not engage in shock loading.
• Avoid sudden crane acceleration and deceleration when moving suspended loads.

Moving materials by hand can pose numerous hazards, ranging from sprains and strains to crushed bones and amputations.

• When moving materials by hand, workers should attach handles or holders to loads.
• Workers should use PPE such as gloves, eye protection, and steel-toed safety shoes or boots to prevent injury.
• Workers should use blocking materials to manage loads safely.

When moving materials manually, workers should attach handles or holders to loads. In addition, workers should always wear appropriate personal protective equipment and use proper lifting techniques. To prevent injury from oversize loads, workers should seek help in the following situations:

• When a load is so bulky that employees cannot properly grasp or lift it,
• When employees cannot see around or over a load, or
• When employees cannot safely handle a load.

Using the following personal protective equipment prevents needless injuries when manually moving materials:

• Hand and forearm protection, such as gloves, for loads with sharp or rough edges.
• Eye protection.
• Steel-toed safety shoes or boots.
• Metal, fiber, or plastic metatarsal guards to protect the instep area from impact or compression.

Employees should use blocking materials to manage loads safely. Workers should also be cautious when placing blocks under a raised load to ensure that the load is not released before removing their hands from under the load. Blocking materials and timbers should be large and strong enough to support the load safely. Workers should not use materials with cracks, rounded corners, splintered pieces, or dry rot for blocking.

• There are many resources and tools that employers can use to help determine what is a safe weight for lifting, including the NIOSH Lifting Equation and the Liberty Mutual Material Handling Tables.

It can be challenging to determine what is a safe weight for workers to lift, push, or pull, largely because there is no set limit that can be applied to every situation or every worker—many variables dictate what is safe. However, there are several resources and tools that safety professionals can use to help determine and set safe limits.

NIOSH Lifting Equation

One of the most used resources for determining safe lifting limits is the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Lifting Equation. The NIOSH equation sets a fixed weight of 51 pounds as the load constant (that is generally considered the maximum load nearly all healthy workers should be able to lift under optimal conditions.)

However, the NIOSH equation also uses other factors such as height and angle of the lift, frequency of the lift, type of hand grip, and travel distance; these are all just as important in assessing a lift as the weight of the object. The final product of using the NIOSH Lifting Equation is a Recommended Weight Limit (RWL) for a task, given all the factors. Note: The NIOSH Lifting Equation is not suitable for one-handed lifts, or for unstable loads.

Worksheet/calculator for manual lifts

Because of the complexity of the NIOSH Lifting Equation, many safety professionals have difficulty applying it. There are tools to assist with using the NIOSH equation. One tool that can assist with evaluating manual lifts was developed by the Washington State Department of Labor and Industries. It is a worksheet for assessing manual lifting operations and uses a modified version of the NIOSH Lifting Equation.

The Oregon Occupational Safety and Health Division (Oregon OSHA) also has an electronic tool that is based on the NIOSH Lifting Equation.

Alternative to maximum weight limits

The Liberty Mutual Material Handling (MMH) tables are an alternative to determine proper weight handling. The MMH tables focus on male/female population percentages capable of performing a manual material handling task with certain characteristics, rather than on maximum weight limits. The MMH tables can be used in the design of lifting tasks as well as pushing and pulling tasks. Note: These tables should not be used to determine whether a specific worker can perform a specific task. Rather, they are intended to help professionals design tasks so that the majority of the workforce can safely perform them. The tables stipulate that designing tasks for greater than 75 percent of the female working population leads to lower risk from handling injuries.

To make handling materials easier, many mechanical aids are available.

• Workers who operate cranes must be thoroughly trained and competent in that skill, and should know how to inspect the crane for maladjustment, deformation, and other damage.
• Crane operators must know and follow the load chart for the crane they are operating.

Employers must allow only thoroughly trained and competent workers to operate cranes. Operators should know what they are lifting and how much it weighs. For example, the rated capacity of mobile cranes varies with the length of the boom and the boom radius. When a crane has a telescoping boom, a load may be safe to lift at a short boom length or a short boom radius, but may overload the crane when the boom is extended and the radius increases. To reduce the severity of an injury, employers must take the following precautions:

• Equip all cranes that have adjustable booms with boom angle indicators.
• Provide cranes with telescoping booms with some means to determine boom lengths, unless the load rating is independent of the boom length.
• Post load rating charts in the cab of cab-operated cranes. (All cranes do not have uniform capacities for the same boom length and radius in all directions around the chassis of the vehicle.)
• Require workers to always check the crane’s load chart to ensure that the crane will not be overloaded by operating conditions.
• Instruct workers to plan lifts before starting them to ensure that they are safe.
• Tell workers to take additional precautions and exercise extra care when operating around power lines.
• Teach workers that outriggers on mobile cranes must rest on firm ground, on timbers, or be sufficiently cribbed to spread the weight of the crane and the load over a large enough area. (Some mobile cranes cannot operate with outriggers in the traveling position.)
• Direct workers to always keep hoisting chains and ropes free of kinks or twists and never wrapped around a load.
• Train workers to attach loads to the load hook by slings, fixtures, and other devices that have the capacity to support the load on the hook.
• Instruct workers to pad sharp edges of loads to prevent cutting slings.
• Teach workers to maintain proper sling angles so that slings are not loaded in excess of their capacity.
• Ensure that all cranes are inspected frequently by persons thoroughly familiar with the crane, the methods of inspecting the crane, and what can make the crane unserviceable. Crane activity, the severity of use, and environmental conditions should determine inspection schedules.
• Ensure that the critical parts of a crane — such as crane operating mechanisms, hooks, air, or hydraulic system components and other load-carrying components — are inspected daily for any maladjustment, deterioration, leakage, deformation, or other damage.

For more information, see the Cranes topic.

• Workers who use fork trucks and other specialized industrial trucks must know how to safely operate and maintain them.

Powered industrial trucks, commonly called forklifts or lift trucks, are used in many industries, primarily to move materials. They can also be used to raise, lower, or remove large objects or a number of smaller objects on pallets or in boxes, crates, or other containers. Powered industrial trucks can either be ridden by the operator or controlled by a walking operator. Over-the-road haulage trucks and earth-moving equipment that has been modified to accept forks are not considered powered industrial trucks.

There are many types of powered industrial trucks. Each type presents different operating hazards. For example, a sit-down, counterbalanced high-lift rider truck is more likely than a motorized hand truck to be involved in a falling load accident because the sit-down rider truck can lift a load much higher than a hand truck. Workplace type and conditions are also factors in hazards commonly associated with powered industrial trucks. For example, retail establishments often face greater challenges than other worksites in maintaining pedestrian safety. Beyond that, many workers can also be injured when (1) lift trucks are inadvertently driven off loading docks; (2) lifts fall between docks and an unsecured trailer; (3) they are struck by a lift truck; or (4) they fall while on elevated pallets and tines.

It is a violation of federal law for anyone under 18 years of age to operate a forklift or for anyone OVER 18 years of age who is not properly trained and certified to do so. For more information, see the Powered Industrial Trucks topic.